第六讲语法隐喻

1、第六讲 语法隐喻1、书面语与口语体的区别判断书面语的复杂程度的两个重要的指标是看语法复杂程度和词汇复杂程度。词汇密度和语法复杂程度是两个重要的语言特征。这两个特征与名词化有着密切的关系，同时也是口语体和书面体的主要区别。在书面语中，词汇比较复杂，密度大，语法结构简单；在口语体中，词汇密度小，语法结构复杂。然而，国内的许多学者都注意到名词化这一特征并没有在外语学习者的作文中体现出来。2、词汇密度词汇密度指的是一个语篇中小句实义词的平均值。提高词汇密度的一个有效的途径就是减少虚词，减少小句。3、名词化名词化是口语体向书面体转变的主要手段。所谓名词化，就是将不是名词的词（如动词和形容词）变为名词，并

2、引起句子中其他成分的相应变化。名词化是产生语法隐喻的惟一之最重要来源。4、名词化的功能名词化能使我们避免很多拖泥带水的表达，因为它表达的是本来需要用很多小句才能表达的意义。名词化的使用使句子词汇密度加大、语言简练了。它为简化句子结构，避免复杂冗长创造了条件。例115：She became powerful and popular in a phenomenal way, and she became powerless and unpopular in a fantastic way and then she was made politically powerful and popular

3、again even more rapidly and remarkably less than four years before she was assassinated in the autumn of 1984. （Halliday &Matthiessen, 1999: 280）这个句子属于口语体，其中包含了四个小句，中间用and连接。它的语法复杂程度为4，词汇密度为9.3。把这个句子用书面语表达:例116：Her phenomenal rise to power and popularity was followed by a fantastic fall and then by

4、an event more rapid and remarkable political resurrection less than four years before her assassination in the autumn of 1984.整个句子只有一个小句，中间没有连词连接，其语法复杂程度为1，词汇密度为22。通过对比，可以看出口语体的语法复杂程度明显高于书面语。第二个句子进行名词后句与句连接更加紧密，小句的数量相对减少。例117：On the fifth day they arrived at the summit. The fifth day saw them at the

5、 summit.例118：The fact that I denied what he accused me of impressed the jury. My denial of his accusations impressed the jury.名词化取代了The fact that。例119：The enemy destroyed the city. The destruction of the city.名词化省略了destruction的施事者。作者还可以用名词化将事件前景化。例如：例120：The destruction of the city led to an extende

6、d conflict.例121：Some mornings it was a dull red, then it would be frightened then a rich purple, and once they found it bright green. These changes naturally amused the family, and they tried to guess what it would be next.例122：The enemy bombed the city for weeks. The destruction was devastating.例12

7、1和例122中的changes和destruction分别与它们前面的句子产生照应，使得句子简洁，使得语篇连成一体。例123： We wont formally extend the time you have to do your assignments, / but if you cant hand your assignment in on time/ because something has gone wrong/ or because you didnt plan properly, / then you can submit it within the next 14 days

8、/ If it is late/ because something happened to disable you/ and you couldnt have foreseen/ that that would happen, / then it will not be penalized, provided that/ (1) you attach a document which proved what happened to you to the essay and /(2) the Late Essay Committee accepts/ what you say/ you had

9、 wrong with you / and the way you prove that to us / Look in the booklet about submitting essays and assignments/ if you want to find out more about how we penalize you.（口语体）例124Formal extension of time are not granted as much, / but if, though misfortune or bad planning, an assignment can not be su

10、bmitted on time, / it may be submitted within the next 14 days / If tit is late because of some unforeseen disability/ it will not be penalized, / provided that (1) documentary evidence of the disability is attached to the essay and / (2) the nature of the disability and of the evidence is acceptabl

11、e to the Late Essay Committee. / Full details of penalties are provided in the “Submission of Essays and Assignments” document.（书面体）篇章123属于口语体，包含17 个小句，3个句子，去语法复杂程度为5.6；篇章2属于书面体，共有8个小句，3个句子，其语法复杂程度为2.6.通过对比，我们可以看出，口语体的语法复杂程度明显高于书面体，这主要是篇章1中的部分词语在篇章124中被名词化了，如：extend extension; go wrong misfortune; m

12、ore about details; plan planning; disable disability; prove evidence; penalize penalty; submit submission. 由此可见，名词化这一过程直接导致书面语中句与句连接的更加紧密，小句数量相对减少，从而降低了语法复杂程度。Beforeprecede理解语法隐喻有两个很重要的概念，即打包和拆析。下面的例子显示了打包和拆析过程。例125： prolonged exposure will result in rapid deterioration of the itemIf the item is exp

13、osed for long it will deteriorate rapidly5. 名词化的转换形式名词化指的是把动词、形容词通过一定的方式如加缀、转化等转换成名词的语法过程。1) 用名词替代动词 例1The paper analyzes the problem and solves it在科技英语中则通常说： The paper gives an analysis of the problem and offers a solution例2You can rectify this fault if you insert a slash插入一条斜线便可以纠正错误：在科技英语中则通常说：Re

14、ctification of this fault is achieved by insertion of a slashThe paper analyzes the problem and solves itThe paper gives an analysis of the problem and offers asolutionYou can rectify this fault if you insert a slashRectification of this fault is achieved by insertion of a slash在这组例子中，名词化发生在两个地方rect

15、ify-rectification，insert-insertion,经过名词化处理后，含有两个诸位结构的复合句变成了只含一个主谓结构的简单句，从而使句子的结构更加精炼，也由于使用抽象名词替代原来的人称代词做主语而使句子的语体更加正式。2) 用名词替代形容词 例3It is doubtful how accurate the results are结果的正确性值得怀疑。也可以表示为：The accuracy of these results is doubtful.3) 用名词替代句子例4If the experiment is done by this method, there will

16、be some loss of equipment用这种方法做实验设备会有一些损 失。可以表示为：The doing of the experiment by this method will entail some loss of equipment6.使用名词化的动因1)静态性名词与动词相比较，名词更具有静态性，不像动词那样生动具体和活跃。假如简单地述说一个事实或概念，仅指出动作和技术的特点，不需要动词那样生动具体，可用动作名词来替代动词。科研技术人员关心事物的现象、事实、特点，特别是抽象化的逻辑思维，因而名词化结构的使用，尤其符合科研技术人员表达的需要：比如：例5The rate of

17、evaporation of a liquid depends enormously by on temperature， The dependence of the rate of evaporation of a liquid on temperature is enormous.液体的蒸发速度很大程度上取决于它的温度。2)无人称性(impersonality)为了客观地表达事物的本质，科技英语可带主观性，这可以避免使用人称代词作主语，称之为无人称论述(impersonal statement)。实现无人称性的一个手段是使用被动语态从而避免使用”I”等人称代词，其另一个手段是使用名词诃组。

18、例如：例6. We can normally regulate the temperature by using a thermo-couple,通常可用热点偶调节温度。 Regulation of the temperature can normally be effected by the application of a thermo-couple.另外，用名词替代动词也可避免了与动词相关的人称和时态。例如：例7While it is being compacted, considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete在压实过

19、程中混凝土加上了相当的侧压力。 Considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete during compaction3)前置性(fronting)。主语在英语中所处的位置很重要，科技英语把较多的信息置于句首。这是一种语体特征。例如：例8Hypersonic speeds are quite commonly attained now现在达到超音速相当普遍。 The attainment of hypersonic speeds is now quite common.4)文章简洁明了。名词词组替代从属语句，这样做使文章更为精练。例

20、如：例9If the thickness of the lagging is increased it will reduce the heat losses.增加隔热厚度会减低损耗。 An increase in the thickness of the lagging will reduce the heat losses.7. 名词化结构分类1)单纯名词化结构(名词迭加型)单纯名词化结构指由一个或多个名词修饰一个中心名词构成的名词化结构，属于名词连用的情况，即在中心名词之前用一个或多个名词，它们皆是中心词的前置修辞。water purification system 净水系统laser

21、noise amplitude modulation 激光噪音调幅heat treatment process 热处理过程illumination intensity determination 照明强度测定computer programming teaching device manual 计算机编程教学仪器指南。force fit：a fit by means of applying force, 即借外力压入的一种配合，简称压入配合。 depth gage 测量深度的规或尺；深度规或尺汉译中，名词迭加型一般采用顺译法。2）复合名词化结构(名词化名词性词组) 复合名词化结构由一个中心名词

22、和形容词、名词、副词、分词及介词短语等多个前置或后置修饰语构成。修饰词相对于中心名词的位置关系是汉英名词性词组在构造上最明显的差别。汉语修饰都是前置式的，扩展必须用RL(从右至左)顺序。 英语的修饰语有些前置，有些后置，扩展主要有LR （由左往右）语序。多个汉语修饰位次关系一般是：紧靠中心名词的是表示类别、性质的名词、形容词其次是动词或动词词组，再是数量词或代词，离中心名词最远的是表示领属、时间、地点的_名词和代词。向英语修饰语序可前可后，单个修饰语一般在前，词组、短语 、从句在后。英语修辞一般来说遵守以下原则：限定词描绘性形容词表示大小、新旧的形容词表示颜色的形容词表示类别的形容词表示类别的名词中心名词：基术语序是：专有性泛指性名词；次要意义重要意义名词；程度弱 程度强名词。大小名词。意思愈具体、物质性愈强，与中心名词的关系愈密切的就愈靠近中心名词。例如：acute bacterial peritonitis 急性细菌性腹膜炎special strengthening filler material 特殊的强化用的填料low average stress values 较低的平