讨论和结论Writingdiscussionsandconclusion

1、Lecture EightWriting discussions and conclusion Topics to be covered1. Writing Discussion part2. Writing ConclusionWriting Discussion PartIntroduction:It looks at how Discussion chapters are typically organized and provides a framework that will help students write this section of the thesis or diss

2、ertation. Difficulties non-native writers have with this part of the thesis.Functions of Discussion chapters The discussion chapter is where the student should move beyond their data and integrate the result of their study with existing theory and research. The logical arrangement of this part is of

3、 primary importance. Be sure you support and analyze your points with adequate evidence, reasons, examples, facts, etc. A good Discussion chapter typically contains the following:vAn overview of the significant findings of the study;vA consideration of the findings in the light of existing research

4、studies;vImplications of the study for current theory (except in purely applied studies);vA careful examination of findings that fail to support or only partly support the hypotheses outlined in the study;vLimitations of the study that may affect the validity效度效度, credibility信度信度or the generalizabil

5、ity归纳性归纳性of the results;vRecommendations for further research;vImplications of the study for professional practice or applied settings (optional).Strategies for writing Discussion sectionvwrite a sentence about all the things you know now that you didnt know when they started the research.vsort thes

6、e sentences into groups.vwrite heading for each of the groups of sentences.vwrite sub-headings for each sentence in each group.vuse this as a framework for planning the Discussion chapter.The typical shape of the Discussion section The Discussion chapter is often in a kind of reverse form from the I

7、ntroduction section. That is, in the Introduction the prime focus is on previous research on the topic, with the students research taking a secondary focus. In the Discussion chapter, the students study is the primary focus and precious research the secondary focus. Here, previous research is used f

8、or confirmation, comparison or contradistinction (Swales 2004).Some examples:1)The structure of the Discussion chapters by Hopkins et al.(10 steps)vbackground information;vstatement of results;v(un) expected outcome i.e. whether the result is expected or not;vReference to previous researchcomparison

9、 of results with previous research reported in the literature;vExplanation of unexpected outcomesuggesting reasons for an unexpected result (if this is the case) or one different from those found in previous research;vExemplificationproviding examples to support the explanation given in step 5;vDedu

10、ction or claimmaking a more general claim arising from the results of the study, e.g. drawing a conclusion, stating an hypothesis;vSupport from previous research quoting previous research to support the claim/s being made;vRecommendation making suggestions for future research;vJustification for futu

11、re researcharguing why the future research is recommended.2) Structure based on Samrajs study:vbackground information;vreport on results;vcommentary on results interpretation of results comparison with other research explanation for results evaluation of resultsvsummary of results;vevaluation of the

12、 study limitations significance/ advantage of the study evaluation of the methodsvevaluation of the field;vdeductions from the results; research deductions applied deductions3) Structure based on Swales & Feaks studyMove 1 Points to consolidate the research spacei.e. interpretive points rather than

13、descriptive facts or results; For example: a reminder of the original purpose of the study; a statement of results followed by a follow-up such as: - statements of the importance (or otherwise) of the results;- examples from the data which illustrate the results;- comparison with other work/ previou

14、s research- review of the methodology- reference to the theory underpinning支撑支撑 the study- conclusions that might be drawn- the strengths of the study- whether the results were expected or unexpected.Move 2 points to indicate the limitations of the study; what cannot be concluded from the research;M

15、ove 3 points to identify useful areas of further research.It is important to point out that their lists of points does not represent a fixed order. Which point comes first and which comes next depends on the particular study. Discussion sections, further, vary from discipline to discipline so it is

16、important for student to examine what actually happens in their own field of study. Activity: ask your students to look at the Discussion chapter in a thesis or dissertation in their area of study and make a list of the steps that it goes through. Which of the three models described above is it clos

17、est to? Or is it a mix of each of these?Making claims and hedging in the Discussion section Just as students need to show their position in relation to previous knowledge when they review and critique previous research, they also need to show their position in relation to the outcomes of their own r

18、esearch. That is, they need to show both their stance and engagement (Hyland 2005) with their findings and the work of other researchers on their topic.Hyland describes stance as the ways in which writers present themselves and convey their judgments, opinions and commitments to their own, and other

19、 peoples research. Engagement is the strategies writers use to acknowledge and recognize the presence of their readers: pulling them along with their argument, focusing their attention, acknowledging their uncertainties, including them as discourse participants and guiding them to interpretations (H

20、yland, 2005b).Stance and engagement strategies with examples Activity: Ask students to look at the Discussion section of a thesis or dissertation written in their area of study and find example of the kind of stance and engagement strategies described by Hyland. Ask them to identify which of these s

21、trategies seem to be more common in their area of study.Assignment: Look at the following extract from the Discussion section of a Masters thesis and look at the way the writers have made claims. To what extent, and how have they hedged their claims?This would seem to suggest that knowledge of anoth

22、er European language did not prevent first language features from being carried over into English. If students did not transfer punctuation and stylistic features from French into English, there seems to be no grounds for assuming that they transferred discourse patterns话语模式话语模式from French. There ap

23、pears to be a strong probability that the students use of English discourse patterns reflects the fact that Arabic discourse patterns do not differ radically from English ones, at least in so far as expository texts are concerned. Written discourse may differ in the style of presentation between the

24、 two cultures, but the style merely reflects superficial syntactic differences, not contrasting methods of overall discourse structure. (Cooley and Lewkowicz 2003).Writing ConclusionsIntroduction: Here we will provide a framework for the typical structure of concluding chapters. The language typical

25、 of concluding chapters is also discussed as is the purpose of the Conclusions section. Features of Conclusions:The Conclusions section is where students both summarize and wrap up their work. The following is a list of features by Evans Gruba (2002):vThe Conclusions are what the Discussion chapter

26、has been arguing for.vThe Conclusions may be a separate chapter or they may be combined with the Discussion chapter, labeled Discussion and Conclusions.vThe Conclusions reached in this chapter should be drawn from the Discussion chapter;vThere should be no further discussion in the Conclusions chapt

27、er.vThe Conclusions should respond to the aims that were stated in the first chapter.A summary of findings is not the same as conclusion. Summaries are a statement of what students found out; conclusions are a statement of the significance of what they found out. Often a Conclusion chapter is only a

28、 few pages long, as opposed to the Discussion chapter which should be much longer and much more extensive in its elaboration and reference to prior research.The typical shape of Conclusions1) Thompson (2005) lists the following conventional section of a Conclusions chapter:vintroductory restatement

29、of aims, research questions; vConsolidation强化 of present research (e.g. findings, limitations);vpractical applications/ implications;vrecommendations for further research.2) Two main types of Conclusions found by Bunton (2005): thesis-oriented Conclusion: one that focuses mainly on the thesis itself

30、, beginning with a restatement of purpose and summary of findings and claims. field-oriented Conclusions: one that focuses mainly on the field and only mentions the thesis and its findings or contributions in the context of the whole field (Bunton. 2005). He found these different orientations导向 affe

31、cted the organization of this chapter.Typical structure of thesis-oriented ConclusionsvIntroductory statement: Restatement of the issue being researched, work carried out, purpose of the study, research questions or hypotheses;vConsolidation of the research space: Summary and evaluation of methods,

32、summary of results/ findings and claims;vRecommendations: Future research, practical applications, limitations of the study and implications. (source: based on Bunton 2005)Field-oriented Conclusions often have quite different structure to thesis-oriented ones. They are often written in more of a pro

33、blem/solution/evaluation type pattern and in some cases are written in the form of an argument. This type of Conclusions is less frequent but it does indicate that there is more than one way in which the Conclusion may be written. Conclusions also vary across areas of study. So you need to look at p

34、revious theses and dissertations in your area to see which of these patterns is more typical. The language of ConclusionsHewings (1993) discusses typical language features of Conclusion. In particular, he describes how writers report, comment and speculate（推测）on their findings. He found in his resea

35、rch, that writers typically refer to one of three things when they do this: the world, other research, and either the methodology or findings of the thesis or dissertation itself. Conclusion The Discussion and Conclusions sections of a thesis are not always easy to provide student with guidelines fo

36、r. There is a lot of disciplinary variation in these sections. One thing writers do, however, in this part of the text, no matter what the conventions, is step back and take a broad look at their findings and their study as a whole, saying not just what the study had done, but also what does it mean

37、?. This what does it mean?, we feel, is the key point that a good Discussion, and in turn Conclusions, section needs to address. A good thesis should tell the reader not just what I have done, but why what I have done matters. 讨论部分1.讨论部分介于结果讨论部分介于结果(Results)与结论与结论(Conclusion)之间，但又没有之间，但又没有明确的界限。作者可以

38、在描述研究结果之后，对结果进行一定的明确的界限。作者可以在描述研究结果之后，对结果进行一定的归纳、总结、分析、解释、比较，提出自己的见解。这样讨论也归纳、总结、分析、解释、比较，提出自己的见解。这样讨论也就融进了结果之中，不需单辟一节来处理。同样，作者也可将讨就融进了结果之中，不需单辟一节来处理。同样，作者也可将讨论融进结论部分，与结论合二为一。论融进结论部分，与结论合二为一。 2.详细的讨论一般包括以下内容：详细的讨论一般包括以下内容：(1)对研究结果进行综合、分析和归纳，并把研究结果上升到理论的对研究结果进行综合、分析和归纳，并把研究结果上升到理论的层次进行探讨，分析研究结果的意义；层次进

39、行探讨，分析研究结果的意义；(2)指出自己的成果与他人的研究成果有何异同；指出自己的成果与他人的研究成果有何异同；(3)在讨论中还可以对没有意想到的结果加以解释；在讨论中还可以对没有意想到的结果加以解释；(4)指出并分析自己研究的局限性，提出需要进一步研究的问题；指出并分析自己研究的局限性，提出需要进一步研究的问题；(5)为以后的研究指明方向，并将研究成果与实际生活应用相结合。为以后的研究指明方向，并将研究成果与实际生活应用相结合。v如果这些内容包括在讨论中，也就完全可以当作文章的结论了。如果这些内容包括在讨论中，也就完全可以当作文章的结论了。此部分的内容相对来说有一定的灵活性。写法上也没有固

40、定不变的此部分的内容相对来说有一定的灵活性。写法上也没有固定不变的模式，可以从许多方面入手，如：说明研究结果的意义模式，可以从许多方面入手，如：说明研究结果的意义, 对研究对研究结果进行总结，比较他人的研究结果，回顾研究的目的等。结果进行总结，比较他人的研究结果，回顾研究的目的等。写得好的讨论（或分析）具有以下几个主要特征：写得好的讨论（或分析）具有以下几个主要特征：要设法提出结果一节中证明的原理、相互关系要设法提出结果一节中证明的原理、相互关系以及归纳性的解释，但只对结果进行论述，而以及归纳性的解释，但只对结果进行论述，而不应进行重述。不应进行重述。要能指出你的结果和解释与以前发表的著作相要

41、能指出你的结果和解释与以前发表的著作相一致或不一致的地方。一致或不一致的地方。要论述你的研究工作的理论含义以及实际应用要论述你的研究工作的理论含义以及实际应用的各种可能性。的各种可能性。要能指出任何的例外情况或相互关系中有问题要能指出任何的例外情况或相互关系中有问题的地方，并且应明确提出尚未解决的问题及解的地方，并且应明确提出尚未解决的问题及解决的方向。决的方向。 语言运用技巧语言运用技巧v 从语言方面来看，我们可以将它与结果部分的语言进行比较。在结果部分，从语言方面来看，我们可以将它与结果部分的语言进行比较。在结果部分，语言往往比较具体、客观，而在讨论中，语言带有一定概括性，同时，可能语言往

42、往比较具体、客观，而在讨论中，语言带有一定概括性，同时，可能会用一些表达主观态度的字眼。会用一些表达主观态度的字眼。v在以下的句子中，在以下的句子中，a，b两句话摘自结果部分，语言比较具体，用了具体数据两句话摘自结果部分，语言比较具体，用了具体数据52，19等。等。c和和d两句话摘自讨论或结论中，用了表示概括的副词修饰语两句话摘自讨论或结论中，用了表示概括的副词修饰语overall。a. Of 62 shoot sections, 52% (n=32) exhibited pigment/necrotic changes and 19% (n = 12) died (Table 1).b. S

43、even shoots died after developing some necrotic tissues, five became necrotic but did not die, and five died without necrosis (Table 1 ).c. Overall, our study revealed a variety of patterns at the community and population levels, none of which seem to indicate obvious decline in southeastern Ohios o

44、ak-hickory forests. d. The overall results indicate that the Quality Water for Home and Farm correspondence program met the objectives set for the program and was an effective method to deliver water quality and management training.v表示概括的词或词组还有：表示概括的词或词组还有：on the whole，in the main，generally，the majo

45、rity of，most等。等。v讨论部分表示研究局限性的主要句型如下：讨论部分表示研究局限性的主要句型如下：a. It should be noted that this study has examined onlyb. This analysis has concentrated onc. The findings of this study are restricted tod. This study has addressed only the question ofe. The limitations of this study are clearf. We should like

46、 to point out that we have notg. However, the findings do not implyh. The result of the study cannot be taken as evidence fori. Unfortunately, we are unable to determine from this data结论结论可以用可以用“结束语结束语”、“结语结语”等标题来表示等标题来表示 结论部分的写作要求是：措词严谨，逻辑严密，文字具体，结论部分的写作要求是：措词严谨，逻辑严密，文字具体，常像法律条文一样，按顺序常像法律条文一样，按顺序1、

47、2、3列成条文，列成条文，用语暂钉用语暂钉截铁截铁，且只能作一种解释，且只能作一种解释，不能模棱两可、含糊其词不能模棱两可、含糊其词。文字。文字上也不应夸大，对尚不能完全肯定的内容注意留有余地。上也不应夸大，对尚不能完全肯定的内容注意留有余地。 内容一般包括：内容一般包括：v本文研究结果说明了什么问题；本文研究结果说明了什么问题；v对前人有关的看法作了哪些修正、补充、发对前人有关的看法作了哪些修正、补充、发 展、证实或否展、证实或否定。定。v本文研究的不足之处或遗留未予解决的问题，以及对解决本文研究的不足之处或遗留未予解决的问题，以及对解决这些问题的可能的关键点和方向。这些问题的可能的关键点和

48、方向。如何写结论如何写结论v学术文章的结论部分学术文章的结论部分(Conclusion)是作者对有关研究课题进是作者对有关研究课题进行的总体性讨论。结论必须具有严密的科学性和客观性，它行的总体性讨论。结论必须具有严密的科学性和客观性，它反映本研究课题的价值，同时对以后的研究具有指导意义。反映本研究课题的价值，同时对以后的研究具有指导意义。如果文章中的如果文章中的Discussion一节已对研究结果进行了全面的一节已对研究结果进行了全面的分析、综合、归纳、推理和总结，那么分析、综合、归纳、推理和总结，那么Conclusion则可以则可以比较简短。比较简短。 v从某种意义上说，从某种意义上说，Co

49、nclusion与与Introduction遥相呼应，遥相呼应，因为因为Introduction部分介绍了本课题的研究目的，那么部分介绍了本课题的研究目的，那么Conclusion要告诉读者这些目的是否达到，在研究中做了要告诉读者这些目的是否达到，在研究中做了哪些工作，取得了什么结果，这些结果说明了什么问题，有哪些工作，取得了什么结果，这些结果说明了什么问题，有何价值和意义，研究过程中存在或发现了哪些问题，原因是何价值和意义，研究过程中存在或发现了哪些问题，原因是什么，建议如何解决等。什么，建议如何解决等。结论部分的内容与结构布局结论部分的内容与结构布局一般来说，结论部分的具体内容及其组织框架

50、如下。一般来说，结论部分的具体内容及其组织框架如下。v1.概括说明本课题的研究内容、结果及其意义与价值。概括说明本课题的研究内容、结果及其意义与价值。v2.比较具体地说明本研究证明了什么假设或理论，得出了什比较具体地说明本研究证明了什么假设或理论，得出了什么结论，研究结果有何实用价值，有何创造性成果或见解，么结论，研究结果有何实用价值，有何创造性成果或见解，解决了什么实际问题，有何应用前景等。解决了什么实际问题，有何应用前景等。v3.与他人的相关研究进行比较。与他人的相关研究进行比较。v4. 本课题的局限性、不足之处，还有哪些尚待解决的问题。本课题的局限性、不足之处，还有哪些尚待解决的问题。v

51、5.展望前景，或指出进一步研究的方向。展望前景，或指出进一步研究的方向。v在上面五项内容中，第一、二项是必不可少的。第三、四、在上面五项内容中，第一、二项是必不可少的。第三、四、五项内容可以根据需要而定。五项内容可以根据需要而定。下面一则结论摘自一篇关于学校科技活动项目是否有助于达到科学教育目标的研下面一则结论摘自一篇关于学校科技活动项目是否有助于达到科学教育目标的研究论文。究论文。v1Science projects appear to be an important part of science education. 2Teachers feel that student science

52、 projects are meeting the educational goals for science. 3Experience through modeling the necessary skills in the classroom has the strongest relationship to science projects meeting these goals. 4Participation in a science fair beyond the local level, and supportive help from parents and other adul

53、ts may also improve the effectiveness of student science projects. 5By utilizing these methods, more teachers may be able to address the goals of the National Science Teachers Association.v 分析：第分析：第12句为总体结论：学校的科技活动是科技教育中的一个重要组成句为总体结论：学校的科技活动是科技教育中的一个重要组成部分。教师认为，学生的科技活动有助于实现科技教育目标。部分。教师认为，学生的科技活动有助于实

54、现科技教育目标。v 第第34句为两条具体结论：第一条结论是：课堂上的模拟操作活动经验与句为两条具体结论：第一条结论是：课堂上的模拟操作活动经验与实现科技教育的目标有密切关系。第二条结论是：参加科技博览会、父母或实现科技教育的目标有密切关系。第二条结论是：参加科技博览会、父母或其他成人的支持可以提高学生科技活动的效果。其他成人的支持可以提高学生科技活动的效果。v 第第5句展望未来趋势。句展望未来趋势。v从上述例子可以看出，通过一项研究工作，可能会得出几条结论，这些结论从上述例子可以看出，通过一项研究工作，可能会得出几条结论，这些结论的主次轻重可以从字里行间表现出来。如例的主次轻重可以从字里行间表

55、现出来。如例4中的第中的第3句话通过使用句话通过使用has the strongest relationship点出了最主要的结论，而在第点出了最主要的结论，而在第4句话中运句话中运用用also这个词，来表示递进关系，说明这句话陈述的内容是研究结论之这个词，来表示递进关系，说明这句话陈述的内容是研究结论之二。有时为了清楚醒目，可以将结论列成几条二。有时为了清楚醒目，可以将结论列成几条.结论部分的语言运用技巧结论部分的语言运用技巧v结论部分的语言除要严谨、连贯、精炼、确切以外，还要具结论部分的语言除要严谨、连贯、精炼、确切以外，还要具有高度的概括性。有高度的概括性。v 结论部分与其他各部分不同的

56、是，现在时态结论部分与其他各部分不同的是，现在时态 (特别是一般特别是一般现在时和现在完成时现在时和现在完成时) 使用频率很高，这是因为结论部分总使用频率很高，这是因为结论部分总结研究者到前为止做了些什么工作，得出了什么结果，这些结研究者到前为止做了些什么工作，得出了什么结果，这些结果对现在来说有什么影响、意义和价值，能够应用于什么结果对现在来说有什么影响、意义和价值，能够应用于什么地方，解决什么问题等。地方，解决什么问题等。v第第1句话大多是现在完成时态。句话大多是现在完成时态。v结论中的句子既可以用主动语态，也可以用被动语态，总体结论中的句子既可以用主动语态，也可以用被动语态，总体上说，两

57、种语态的使用频率差别无几。但有时结论部分侧重上说，两种语态的使用频率差别无几。但有时结论部分侧重于研究内容、对象或结果，所以，往往将研究内容置于句首于研究内容、对象或结果，所以，往往将研究内容置于句首作主语，于是，谓语动词自然要使用被动语态。作主语，于是，谓语动词自然要使用被动语态。用主动语态时，常常用用主动语态时，常常用this paper, this investigation, this study, this survey, the results, the analysis 或或we, I 等作等作主语。主语。v例例: a. This study clearly demonstrat

58、es thatv b. This investigation discovers thatv c. This study reveals thatv d. We have describedv e. We have shownv f. In this paper we have proposed/discussedv g. These results representv v例中的例中的a，b，c，g四个句子中，分别用了四个句子中，分别用了demonstrate，discover，reveal，represent作谓语，表示作者对研究结作谓语，表示作者对研究结果所持的态度明确、肯定。值得指出的

59、是，作者有时对自己果所持的态度明确、肯定。值得指出的是，作者有时对自己研究结果采取慎重的态度，不那么肯定地说研究结果采取慎重的态度，不那么肯定地说“结果说明结果说明了了”、“证明了证明了”等，往往对动词加以修饰。表示作等，往往对动词加以修饰。表示作者不太肯定或慎重的态度，或者用以缓和语气。技巧如下者不太肯定或慎重的态度，或者用以缓和语气。技巧如下:技巧技巧1：用情态动词：用情态动词v最常用情态动词有最常用情态动词有will，can，may，及其过去式，及其过去式would， could，might等，等，这三个情态动词语气依次减弱。同一情态动词的过去式比现在式语气弱。这三个情态动词语气依次减弱

60、。同一情态动词的过去式比现在式语气弱。a. Valuable experience will be gained in class through examples given by the teacher and the type of work students do in class.b. Valuable experience can be gained in class through examples given by the teacher and the type of work students do in class.c. Valuable experience may b