morphologhy课件

1、Morphology（形态学）: The Words of Language vWordsvKnowing a word means knowing its sound (pronunciation) and its meaning. someone who doesnt know English would not know where one words begins or ends in an utterance like Thecatsatonthemat but a speaker of English will have no difficulty in segmenting th

2、e stream of sounds into six individual words, The/cat/sat/on/the/matvThe relation between sound and meaning is an arbitrary pairing, it is possible to have words with the same sound and different meanings (bear and bare), and words the same meaning and different sounds (sofa and couch) The same soun

3、d sequences can be interpreted differently, even between languages Un petit dun petit(一点点)French Humpty Dumpty(汉普蒂邓普蒂)EnglishvHow does each word be stored in our mental lexicon?vEach word stored in our mental lexicon（心理词库） must be listed with its unique phonological representation（语音表征）, which deter

4、mines its pronunciation, and with a meaning, besides, the mental lexicon also specifies the grammatical category(语法范畴) or syntactical class(句法分类) of the word vDictionariesvDictionary, n. A malevolent literary device for cramping he growth of a language and making it hard and inelastic(无弹性的) Ambrose

5、Bierce ,The Devils Dictionary The dictionaries that one buy in a bookstore contain some of the information found in our mental dictionaries(心理词典心理词典) What information can dictionary provide for us? (1)spelling (2)the “standard” pronunciation (3) definitions to represent the words one or more meaning

6、s (4)parts of speech词性(e.g., noun, verb, preposition) Other information may include the etymology or history the wordvOur own mental dictionaries probably include only a small set of the entries in all of these dictionaries, but each word is in someones lexicon.vContent Words and Function WordsvCont

7、ent words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, which denote concepts such as objects, actions, attributes, and ideas that we think about like children, and purple.vContent words are sometimes called the open class(开放词开放词) words, because we can add new words to these classes.vFunction words

8、 include conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, they are used to specify grammatical relations and have little or no semantic content.vFunction words are sometimes called closed words(封闭词), the number of such words is small and stable since few words are added. Content words bear the br

9、unt of the meaning(主要意义主要意义), whereas function words connect the content words to the larger grammatical context.vThe difference between content and function words The brain treats content and function words differentlyvThe two classes of words seem to function differently in slips of the tongue（口误）

10、（口误） produced by normal individualsvThey act differently in language acquisitionvMorphemes(语素语素): The Minimal Units of MeaningvA morphemethe minimal linguistic unitis thus an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning that cannot be further analyzedvA morpheme may be represented by:v1.a single sound,

11、as in the morpheme a meaning “without” in amoral or asexualv2.a single syllable, as in child and ish in child+ishv3.two syllables, as in camel ,lady, waterv4.three syllables, as in crocodilev5.four or more syllables, as in onomatopoeiavA single word may be composed of one or more morphemes:vOne morp

12、heme boyvTwo morphemes boy+ish vThree morphemes boy+ish+nessvFour morphemes gentle+man+li+nessvFive morphemes un+gentle+man+li+nessvThe decomposition of words into morphemes illustrates one of the fundamental properties of human languagediscreteness(离散性)vIn all languages, discrete linguistic units c

13、ombine in rule-governed ways to form larger units, sound units combine to form morphemes, morphemes combine to form words, and words combine to form larger unitsphrases and sentences. Our knowledge of these discrete units and the rules for combining them accounts for the creativity of human language

14、. vWith respect to words, linguistic creativity means that not only can we understand words that we have never heard before, but we can also create new words, downloadable *unsadvDiscreteness is one of the properties that distinguish human languages from the communication system of other species vBo

15、und and free morphemes (自由语自由语素和黏着语素素和黏着语素)vFree morphemes(自由语素) are those who can constitute words by themselves, like boy, gentlevBound morphemes(黏着语素) are those who cannot constitute words by themselves but can only be parts of words, like affixes(词缀) -ness, -ly, dis-, trans-vAffixes(词缀词缀)vAffixe

16、s do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes.vThe affixes occur before other morphemes are the prefixes(前缀前缀), like un-, pre-(unhappy, prejudge)vThe affixes occur after other morphemes are the suffixes(后缀后缀), like ing (sing, running), -er (teacher, reader)vSome languages also

17、 have infixes(中缀中缀), which refers to morphemes that are inserted into other morphemes vBontoc, spoken in the philippiness, is such language, as illustrated by the following: Nouns/Adjectives Verbs fikas “strong” fumikas “ to be strong” kilad “red” kumilad “to be red” fusal “enemy” fumusul “ to be an

18、 enemy” Some languages have circumfixes(环缀环缀), which refers to morphemes that are attached to a base morpheme both initially and finally. These are sometimes called discontinuous morphemes (非连续词素非连续词素)vIn Chicksaw, a Muskogean language spoken in Oklahoma, the negative is formed with both a prefix ik

19、- and the suffix o. The final vowel of the affirmative is dropped before the negative suffix is addedv Affirmative Negativechokma “he is good” ik+chokm+o “he isnt good”lakna “it is yellow” ik+lakn+o “it isnt yellow”palli “it is hot” ik+pall+o “it isnt hot”tiwwi “ he opens (it)” ik+tiww+o “he doesnt

20、open (it)”vRoots and stems(词词根和词干根和词干)vMorphologically complex words consist of a root and one or more affixes. vA root(词根) is a lexical content morpheme (内容词素)that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts. A root may or may not stand alone as a word. Some examples of English roots are paint in painter

21、, ceive in conceivevIn languages that have circumfixes, the root is the form around which the circumfix attachesvIn infixing languages the root is the form into which the infix is insertedvWhen a root morpheme is combined with an affix, it forms a stem(词干), which may or may not be a word, with the a

22、ddition of each new affix, a new stem and a new word are formed. Linguists sometimes use the word base(词基) to mean any root or stem to which an affix is attached.root/base system nounstem /base system+atic noun+suffix stem /base un+system+atic prefix+noun+suffixstem /base unsystematical prefix+noun+

23、 suffix+ suffixword un+system+atic+al+ly prefix+noun+suffix+suffix+suffixvThe meaning of a morpheme must be constant. The agentive morpheme er means “one who does” in words like singer, painter , lover , and worker, but the same sounds represent the comparative morpheme, meaning “more” in nicer , pr

24、ettier , and taller. However, the identically form represents two morphemes because of the different meaningsvHuckles and CeivesvSome morphemes have no meaning in isolation but acquire meaning only in combination with other specific morphemes vConsider words like cranberry(蔓越橘), huckleberry(黑果木), an

25、d boysenberry(一种杂交草莓).The berry part is no problem, but huckle and boysen occur only with berry, and they are bound morphemes that occur only in these two words.vOther morphemes occur in many words, but they seem to lack a constant meaning from one word to another.vFor example ,the words receive, co

26、nceive, perceive, and deceive share a common root, -ceive, and the words remit, permit , commit, and admit, share the root mit. But for modern English speakers, Latinate morphemes such as ceive and mit have no independent meaning. Their meaning depends on the entire word in which they occurRules of

27、Word Formation Our morphology knowledge includes two components: knowledge of the individual morphemes, their pronunciation, and their meaning, and knowledge of the rules for combining them into complex words. For example, in English, the suffix ify conjoined with nouns can form verbs: purify , ampl

28、ify , simplify,and the follow is the rule we used Adjective +ify Verb “to make Adjective” Derivational Morphology(派生形态学) Bound morphemes like ify and cation are called derivational morphemes(派生语素派生语素). When they are added to a base, a new word with a new meaning is derived, and these morphemes often

29、 can change the category of words. The form that results from the addition of a derivational morpheme is called derived word(派生词) The Hierarchical Structure of Words(词的层次结构) A word is not a simple sequence of morphemes, it has an internal structure For example, the word unsystematic is composed of t

30、hree morphemes: un-, system, and atic. The root is system, a noun, to which we add the suffix atic resulting in an adjective, systematic. To this adjective, we add the prefix un- forming a new adjective, unsystematic In order to represent the hierarchical organization of words (and sentences), lingu

31、ists use tree diagrams(树形图). The tree diagram for unsystematically is as follows: Adverb Adjective ly Adjective al Un Adjective Noun atic systemThis tree represents the application of four morphological rules:1.Noun+ atic Adjective2.Un+Adjective Adjective3.Adjective+ al Adjective4.Adjective+ ly Adve

32、rbvThis means that we must have a list of the derivational morphemes in our mental dictionaries as well as the rules that determine how they are added to a root or stem. Like the property of discreteness discussed earlier, hierarchical structure is an essential property of human language. Words( and

33、 sentences) have component parts, which relate to each other in specific, rule-governed ways. Although unsystematic is a rather complex word, it is well-formed because it follows the morphological rules of the language. On the other hand, a very simple word can be ungrammatical. Suppose in the above

34、 example we first added un- to the root system. That would have resulted in the nonword *unsystem, for there is no rule of English that allows un-to be added to nouns Tree diagrams make explicit the way speakers represent the internal structure of the morphologically complex words in their language.More about Derivational MorphemesDerivational affixes appear to come in