语言学期末考试考点一览

1、实用标准文案Chapter 1 Lin guistics考点1 :定义（选择题或填空题）Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com muni cati on.because it is far more La nguage disti nguishes huma n beings from ani mals sophisticated tha n any ani mal com muni cati on system.Lin guistics:the scie ntific study

2、of huma n Ian guages.It studies not just one Ian guage of any one society, but the Ian guage of all huma n beings.（判断题）注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。Lan guage is vocal1）The primary medium for all la nguages is sound.2）Writ ing systems came into being much later tha n the spoke n forms.Word is the

3、 smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utteranee.词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位考点2 : Design features语言的定义特征（分析大题）Desig n features:the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially makehuman Ianguage distinguishable from Ianguages of animals.（定义填空题 ）语言的四个Design features也是区别人类语言好

4、动物语言的特征A、Arbitrari ness任意性There is no logical connection betwee n meanings and soun ds.语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in differe nt Ian guages.（语素音义关系的任意性）Arbitrari ness at the syn tactic level:Ian guage is n ot arbitrary at the syn tactic level.(语言在句法层面是非

5、任意性)【判断题】The link betwee n a lin guistic sig n and its meaning is a matter ofconven ti on语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成，即规约性任意性具有两个层面，而非any level !（判断题）Arbitrari nesst Makes Ianguage potentially creativeconventiont Makes Ianguage systematicB、Duality双重性，二元性Huma n Ian guage is productive or creative due to duality

6、and recursiven ess(性）.（填空题）The structural orga ni zati on of Ian guage into two abstract levels:At the lower level (the sec on dary level) : mea nin gful un itsAt the higher level (the primary level) : meanin gless segme ntsExpressi on of duality:1. Comb ine meanin gless sounds into meanin gful li n

7、guistic un its2. Comb ine small un its into big un itsC、Creativity 创造性Lan guage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursive ness. We can use it to create new meanin gs.(recurse sentence )递归withoutRecursiveness : it refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly精彩文档defi nite limit.D、D

8、isplacement移位性Human Ianguagesenable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not prese nt （i n time and space） at the mome nt of com muni cati on.（定义填空题）移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体，时间或观点动物语言与人类语言移位性的表现（判断题）Such animals are under“ immediate stimulus control” . Human

9、Ianguage is, on thecon trary, stimulus free.（动物语言会受到直接刺激控制）Our Ian guage en ables us to com muni cate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.考点 3 : Functions of Language语言的功能A、The in formative fu nctio n （信息功能）In formative fun cti on: the major role of languageIan guage is the in strume

10、nt ofthought and people ofte n use it to com muni cate new in formatio n.B、Interpersonal Function（人际功能）InterpersonalFunction:the most importantsociological use of Ianguage, bywhich people establish and maintain their status in a society.eg: Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Joh nny, yours, your obedie nt se

11、rva nt等表称呼的C、The performative function （施事功能 ）:The performative function:This means people speak to “ do things ” or performactions.用说话表示行为D、The emotive function （ 情感功能）:The emotive function:one of the most powerful uses of Ian guage because it iscrucial in cha nging the emoti onal status of an audi

12、e nee for or aga inst some one or someth ing.标志性语句：swear word（誓言）、obscenities（侮辱之词）、involuntaryverbalreactions to a piece of art or scenery、conventional words/phrases,eg:-God, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh我的妈呀，老天爷啊，晕E、 Phatic communion（寒暄功能）The use of Ian guage to establish an atmosphere or mai nt

13、aining social con tact.E. g. Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.F、 The recreational function（娱乐功能）The use of Ian guage for the sheer joy of using it- such as a babys babbling or a chanter' s chanting.G、 Metalingual function （元语言功能）Metalingual function : our Ianguage can be us

14、ed to talk about itself, talking abouttalk and thinking about thinking.- To be honest; on second thought; to tell you the truth; as a matterof fact; that is to say;-Such expressions are used most frequentlywhen we want toexpatiate the meaning of former clauses in another way in argume ntati on.It ma

15、kes the Ianguage infinitely self-reflexive （自我反身性 ）考点 4 : Main branches of Lin guistics（考查定义！ ！）1. Sound f phonetics语音2. Sounds f phono logy 音系学3. Word f morphology 形态学4. Words/sentence f syntax句法学5. Meaning fsema ntics语义学6. Meaning in a con text f pragmatics 语用学（Ian guageinuse）Macroli nguistics（微观语

16、言学）Psycholi nguistics心里语言学Socioli nguistics社会语言学考点 5 : distinctions in linguisticsA、 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive描述性与规定性People say X. Descriptive （To describe the lin guistic facts observed）Don ' t' say X. Prescriptive （To lay down rules for “ correct ” linguistic behavior ）Modern lin guisti

17、cs is mostly Descriptive. 现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象Traditio n En glish belo ngs to Prescriptive. 古代英语则有许多条条框框B、 Synchronic vs. diachronic共时性与历时性（判断题）A synchronic （ 共时的）description, the description of a Ianguage at some point in time, takes a fixed instant as its point of observation （static state）.? A Grammar

18、 of Modern Greek;? The Structure of Shakespeare ' s English? En glish Exami ned: Two Cen turies of Comme nt on the Mother-T on gue.? Protea n Shape: A Study in Eightee nth-ce ntury Vocabulary and Usage.? The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Diachronic（历时的）:the descripti

19、onof a Ianguageas it changes through time.（dynamic state）? Pejorative （ 轻蔑语）Sense Development in English? Pejorative Sense Developme nt in En glish.C、 Langue & parole语言和言语Langue （language）:说话者的 语言 能力 the generalized rules of IanguageParole （speaking）: 语言上的实际表现.D、Compete nee and performa neeCompe

20、te nee: the ideal user ' s kno wledge of the rules of his Ian guage （语言能力 ）Performanee: the actual use of Ianguage in concrete situations （语言运用 ）Lan gue-paroleCompete nce-performa neeLangue is a social product and aCompete nee is deemed as aset of conven ti onsforaproperty of the mind of eachcom

21、 munityin dividualSaussure looks at Ian guage fromN. Chomsky deals with his issuesa sociologicalor sociolinguisticpoint of viewpsychologically orpsycholi nguistically.Words are the most stable of all li nguistic un its, in respect of their internal structure.就词的内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。Chapter 2 Speech

22、soundWhat are the three cavities of the vocal tract?The phary ngeal cavity:卩因月空The oral cavity:口腔空The n asal cavity: 鼻腔空G: velar （软腭音）:舌后部抬升抵住软腭所发出的音k g ? w?k as in cat'g as in get '? as in sing 'w as in wet前元音：由舌的前部发出舌尖抵下齿，舌前部向硬腭抬起i： i e ?ftlMJttier olBilabialJL altiioAlvePalatalGlottal

23、P ht d 1mnf V9 dK ZS 3hJJwl.MTt-rolI考点 1 : Consonants辅音 Vowels 元音左边： voiceless 右边： voicedLateral 边音 Affricate 塞Stop 爆破音 Nasal 鼻音 Fricative 摩擦音擦音会描述辅音，（填空题中找出两个辅音共同的特点 ）eg: p voiceless bilabial stopb voiced bilabial stop他们的共同特点是都具有bilabial stop考点2 :元音的描述考点：会判断broad tran scripti on宽式音标与 narrow transcr

24、iption严式音标的区别eg : peak pi:kbroad tran scripti onp ?:knarrow transcriptionClassification of RP and GA pure vowels参见 P36FrontCe ntralBackUngroun dedRoundedUngroun dedTen seLaxTen seLaxTenseLaxTen seLaxHighMidLowEg : love 人 mid back lax un gro un ded voelMi nimal pairs (a.彼此的语音数量相等 *最小对立体）Four requirem

25、e nts for ide ntify ing mini mal pairs:1) They have the same nu mber of sound segme nts.(dip disk)2) They are different in meaning.b.彼此的意义不同3) They differ only in one sou nd segme nt.c.彼此仅存在一个语音的差异* (bitbad)4) The differe nt sounds occur in the same positi on in the stri ngs. d.语音差异出现在同一位置上pill/bill

26、; pill/till; till/kill; kill/dill/; dill/gillcut/but; big/peg; peak/leapPhones (Phone: a phoneticunit or segment.The speechsoundswe hear and produceduri ng lin guistic com muni cati on are all pho nes.Allopho nes:variati on in the pronun ciati on of phon emes in differe nt positi ons.The speech soun

27、ds we hear and produce duri ng lin guistic com muni cati on areall phones .The mini mal disti nctivespeech soun ds- Phon emesVaria nts of a phon eme are called allophones of the same phon eme.the non-disti nctivespeech soundsTwo requirements for phone满足 allophones的两个条件：1) allopho nes of the same pho

28、n eme should be in compleme ntary distributi on.必须形成互补关系/l/l /V (clear l) eg: leadl / V (dark l) eg: feelNot all the phon es(so un ds) in compleme ntary distributi on are con sidered tobe alloph ones of the same phoneme-they have no phon etic similarity.(成互补分布的不一定都属于同一音位)2) they must bear phon etic

29、similarity.发音近似考点：Assimilati on ( 同化)(2) Across syllables跨音节P43 ex.2-4pan?caken t?k velarsun?glassesn t?g velar(3) Across word boun daries跨过词的界限 P43 ex.2-5You can ? keep themHe can ? go nown t?k velarn t?g velarsu Uve pastfill、pcusl * fHifpazstb* love toIwtaJ一 I lfUc, has toh jeztaclr as can be show

30、n|e. lose five-nilluizfnivinl-* luisfaivmlf edge to edgeed3taed3f Ietrt»ed3)Chapter 3Morphology(1) within a syllable音节内P42 ex.2-1-2-3can k ?n? /+n asaln asalizati on畀音化ten th t ?n 0nn / _ +de ntalden talizati on齿音化sink s ?k n? / -_ +velarvelarizati on软腭化考点1 :定义!Morphology 形态学：the study of word-

31、formation, or the internalstructure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components MorphemesMorphemes（ 语素）:The smallest meaningful components of words.【smallest un it that carries meaning】Phon eme（ 词素）:【smallest un it that can dist in guish meaning】考点2 :词素的分类A、in terms of t

32、heir capacity of occurring aloneFree morphemes 自由语素Bound morphemes黏着语素B、Poly-morphemic wordsother tha n compo unds may be dividedin to rootsand affixes.rootthe part left whe n all the affixes are removed词根stem the part left whe n a certa in affix is removed词干affixthe part which is attachedto other w

33、ords; usually boundmorphemes 词缀C、Inflectionalmorphemes 曲折词 Derivational morphemes派生词题目形式：考查词语的分析，如：organizations这个词语词干是？答：organization（词干，去掉具有语法意义的部分）词根是？答: organizeHigh er education分析词缀意义Chapter 4 From Word to Text考点 1 : Definition of syntaxSyn tax is the study of the in terrelati on shipsbetwee ne

34、leme nts in sentence structures.句法学是研究句子内部组成/成分间的关系考点2 :三种句法关系（给出例子，写出反映的句法关系 ）Relations 】A、纵向关系 【Relation of Substitutability OR Vertical在相同结构的句子中，语法Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.上可以互相替

35、的词类或语词的集合e.g. Thesmiles.manboygirlB、横向关系 【Associative Relations（联想关系） ORParadigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）】Yesterday.eg: He went there - last week.The day before.C、同现关系【Relation of Co-occurrenee】Words of differe nt sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurre nee of a word of ano ther set or class

36、 to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.同现关系指小句中不同集合的词语允许或要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成句子或 句子的某一特定部分。eg：(Preceded by)NP(followed by)the str ong匚 the prettythe youngboysings考点3 : IC的缩写Immediate con stitue nts直接成分（选择题）To dismantle a grammaticalcon structi onin this way is called IMMEDIATECONSTITUE

37、NT ANALYSIS or IC an alysis. 直接成分分析法（a） Tree diagram 树形图 （分析题）Phrasal-levelS= NP+VPVP=V+NPNP= Det+NWord-levelDetthe, a,etc.Ngirl,apple, etc.Vate,took, etc.DetNPDetThegirlatetheapple(b) Bracket ing 括号法(The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple)Bracketi ng is not as com mon in use, but it is an econo mic no tati

38、 on in represe nting the con stitue nt structure of a grammatical un it.考点4 : Endocentric and Exocentric Construction向心结构和离心结构(选择题)En doce ntricCon struct ions(向心结构) is one whose distributi onis function allyequivale nt to that of one or more of its con stitue nts, i.e., a word or a group of words,

39、which serves as a defi nable centre or head.? verb phrases动词短语?gerundial phrase 动名词短语Swimming in the lake is.? participial phrase分词短语(bridge) damaged beyond repair.infin itive phrase不定式(my purpose is) to cheer up plex verbal phrase复合动词短语He will be living in Beijing.Exoce ntric Con struc

40、t ions(离心结构)A group of syntacticallyrelated words where none of the words is fun cti on allyequivale ntto the groupas a whole, that is, there is no definable“ Centre ” or“ Head ” in side the group, usually in cludi ng:- the basic sentence (subject+predicate)- the prepositi onal phrase- the predicate

41、 (verb + object) con structi on- the conn ective (be + compleme nt) con structi on区别：向心结构至少有一个head;Coordi nati on并歹 U关系two or more headsEndocentricConstructions(所有的并列结构都属于向心结构，"and ”、“or ”、“but ”)Subordi nati on从属关系one head离心结构则没有head考点5 : predicate 与predicator 的区另廿Predicate述谓成分：a major constit

42、uent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory con stitue nts other tha n the subject were con sidered together.谓语是指在句子结构二分法中除主语之外的其他所有成分。Predicate in cludes con stitue nts such as verb, object, compleme nt,etc.Predicator（ 谓语动词）:verb or verbs in eluded in a predicate.考点6: cl

43、ause与phrase 的区别(1) Clause有自己的逻辑主语、谓语； phrase则没有(2) Clause功能上与句子相似；phrase只是在语法上不是完整的句子Chapter 5Meaning（Sense Relatio ns涵义关系）考点1 定义（选择和填空）I、Synonymy同义关系Synonymy refers to the same ness or close similarity of meaning.（Words that are close in meaning are called synony ms.）n、Antonymy反义关系Antonymy meansopp

44、osite nessof meaning; words that are opposite in meaningare antony ms.川、Hyponymy 上下义关系（Meaning Inclusiveness意义内包关系）Hyponymy is a matter of class membership.（ A is included in B.）Superordinate_上义词：The upper term in this sense relationHyponym 下义词:The lower termsCo-hyponyms 同下义词:members of the same cla

45、ss? Cf.: chair and furniture , rose and flowerWhat are characteristics of hyponymy?（判断题）上下义词都可缺失!一个上坐标词同时是它自己的上坐c J « = = « = - » - « = . « - - '1. a superord in ate may be a superord in ate to itself.标词?auto-hyponym自我下义词:animal is a hyponym of itself2. a superord in ate

46、 may be missing上坐标词会缺损（判断题）- red, gree n, blue, black, white3. hyponyms may . be .missing下义词也会缺损（判断题）uncles:叔叔，伯伯，舅舅，姑父考点 2 : Types of synonyms同义词类型1. Dialectal synonyms:-synonymsused in differentregionaldialects British English and AmericanEn glishAutu mn = fall lift = elevator flat = apartme ntlug

47、gage = baggagelorry = truck petrol = gasoli ne2. Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in styleSome words tend to be more formal,others casual, and still othersn eutral in style.- daddy, dad, father, male pare nt- start, begi n, comme nee- kid, child, offspri ng- kick the bucket, die, pass away, de

48、cease翘辫子，呜呼，仙逝，去世3. Differing in emotive meaningtough-mindedruthlesschildlike childishstout,skinny4. Collocati on synonymsDiffer in their collocati on, matter of usage.(e.g. comme ndatory Vs. derogatory)resolute obst in ateplump fleshy, tubbyi. e. , in the words theyshrewd sly, craftyslender, slim l

49、ean,go together with. This is a- rotte n tomatoes, addled eggs, ran cid bac on5. Semantically different synonymsDiffer slightly in what they mean.Surprise has two synonyms: amaze and astound, while “ amaze ” occassion if you want to convey.surprised, disbelief.both negative feelings ,“astound ” used

50、 sometimes but more on bigger occassions .- I wasthat the mayor had take n bribes.A. amazedB. asto un ded- I wasat his con duct.A. amazedB. asto un ded考点 3 : Types of antonymy:反义词特征(选择或填空)1. Gradable an to nymy等级反义关系hot Vs. cold2. Compleme ntary antonymy互补反义关系male Vs. female3. Con verse antonymy对比反义

51、关系 teacher Vs. pupil考点41:给出一对反义词，判断其属于那种反义类型(1) Gradable an to nymy等级反义关系?goodbad?bigsmallt等级反义关系的特征I. Gradable 等级的The numberof a pair differ in terms of degree. The denialused in anand positiveone is notn ecessarily the assertion of the other. (good-bad)每对反义词的成员表示的性质是程度上的差别。对一方的否定并不一定是对另一方的肯定。? Can

52、 be modified byvery .? May have comparative and superlative forms.? Can have in termediate groundlike medium.2. Differe nt n orms不同的规范There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something isgood or bad,big or small . The criterion varies with the object described.没有绝对的标准可用来判断某物good 还是bad, big

53、 还是small,标准随对象而改变。? A big cara small pla ne.3. Havi ng a cover term有覆盖词One member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.一对反义词中，那个表示较高程度的单词通常可以用作整个性质的覆盖词。? old& you ng? How old are you?*How young are you?(2) Compleme ntary antonymy互补反义关系alive -deadmale- femal

54、e互补反义关系特征1. Compleme ntary互补的The members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. Not onlythe assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also meansthe assertion of the other.这种反义词中的成员彼此互补。不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。(alive -dead )- Can ' t be modified by very . Haven ' t comparative and superlative forms.-Have