家请注意笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的,这些是绝对的

1、家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。1. Word - A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme - A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Cont

2、ent morphemes (Free root) - They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes - They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root - A bound root is that part of t

3、he word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=befo

4、re) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes - Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes - Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships ar

5、e inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes - Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes - Prefixes are

6、 affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes - suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes - A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already

7、 existing word.Prefixation - is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy.

8、 Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Root - A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.下面我画了个图，把上面的定义形象的表达出来： 12. Opaque Words-Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, g

9、love.13. Transparent Words-Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs-Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spok

10、en, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps-Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality -s has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/,

11、 in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation-Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation-Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.1

12、8. Suffixation-Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）-Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion-Conversion is the formation of n

13、ew words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)->to dry.21. Back-formation- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. e

14、ditor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words-are those created by c

15、lipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone->phone, professional->pro.II. Initialisms-are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms-are words formed from the initial le

16、tters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends-are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy-The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word &quo

17、t;flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structu

18、re of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings. Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenati

19、onRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by su

20、ccessive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms-are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identicala.同一的，完全相同的 only in sound or spel

21、ling.26. Perfect Homonyms-are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;bear v. to put up with27. Homographs-are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. E.g. sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seedssow /sau/ n. female adul

22、t pig28. Homophones-are words identical only insound but different in spelling and meaning. E.g.dear /di3/ n. a loved persondeer /di3/ n. a kind of animal29. Synonyms-can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.maid / girl They ar

23、e the same meaning of "a young female".30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms-are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. For instance, composition / compounding They have

24、 the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.31. Relative (near,partial) synonyms-are similar or nearly the same in denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss o

25、f balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning t

26、o walk.32. Sources of SynonymsI. Borrowing : Native (ask)-French (question)-Latin (interrogate)II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)-railroad (AmE)III. Figurativea. 比喻的，象征的 and euphemistic a.委婉的use of words: occupation-walk of life (fig.)lie-distort the fact (euph.)IV. Coincidence with id

27、iomatic expressions:win-gain the upper handhesitate-be in two minds33. Discrimination of SynonymsI. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of meaning.E.g. extend-increase-expand (range)want-wish-desire (intensity)II. Difference in connotationn.涵义，含蓄: differ in the stylistic and

28、 emotive colouring. E.g.ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)III. Difference in application: in usage. E.g.empty box ; vacant seat34. Antonymy-is concerned with semantic opposition.35. Antonyms-are words which are opposite in meaning.36. Types of AntonymsI. Contradictory terms: mutually

29、opposed; true oppositeness of meaning; no possibility between them; E.g. alive-dead; present-absentII. Contrary terms: gradableE.g. rich-(well-to-do)-poor;hot-(warm,cool)-coldIII. Relative terms: relational oppositenessE.g. parent-child; husband-wife; sell-buyIV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingn

30、ess.E.g. north,south,east,west;spring,summer,autumn,winter.37. Hyponymy-deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is , the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms. For instance, tulip and rose are hypo

31、nyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms.38. Extension of meaning (generalization)-is a term referring to the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has no

32、w become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted mere "painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)-is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a

33、 word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply "any safe place" but now "a place for storing cars".40. Elevation or ameliorationn.改善，改良-refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginning

34、s to positions of importance.E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have risen to a "high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning-It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reput

35、ation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".42. Metaphorn.隐喻-is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to

36、 another.E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has fallen.43. Metonymyn.借代-is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the President. The kettle is boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)

37、44. Synecdochen.提喻法-means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.He is a poor creature. -creature for man45. Analogyn.类似，相似-is a process whereby words are created in imitation of o

38、ther words.For example, telethon an talkathon are created on the model of marathon.46. Idiom-Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (t

39、olerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.47. Characteristics of Idioms: I. Long useII. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.48. Figurative idioms-are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.49. Sources of Figurative idioms:I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calfIII. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble)IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.50. Motivatio