(完整word版)语言学笔记

1、简明英语语言学笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Definition: the scientific study of language.A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a

2、muddled mass of things. The scope of linguistics:General linguistics: study language as a wholeSpecific aspects:1) Phonetics: the study of sounds2) Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3) Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4) Syntax: study the rul

3、es of how to form grammatically correct sentence5) Semantics: the study of meaning6) Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use Interdisciplinary branches:1) Sociolinguistics2) Psycholinguistics3) Applied linguisticsImportant distinctionsPrescriptive and descriptive:1) Descripti

4、ve: Describe and analyze the language that people actually use2) Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language3) Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which is scientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be it correct or not.

5、Synchronic and diachronic1) Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, always in its current existence.2) Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.3) In modern linguistics, synchro

6、nic approach enjoys priority.Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and reveals more true feature of language.Langue and parole1) Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language community; it is the set of conventions and rules that language use

7、rs have abide by2) Parole: Concrete use of language.3) Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2) linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of languageCompetence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1) Compe

8、tence: knowledge of rules of language2) Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication3) The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescripti

9、ve.2) Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3) Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-based framework.What is language?Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1) Language is a system, which means elements of la

10、nguage are combined according to rules.2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4) Language is human-specific.Design feature1) Arbit

11、rariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds. While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g. photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage of vocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a

12、 sign of sophistication of language and make it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) Duality: basic level: a structure of sound

13、s Higher level: sounds of language can be rearranged into morphemes and words4) Displacemen:t 不受时空限制的5) Cultural transmission:huma n have to be lear ned and taught be acquire Ian guage.Functions of Ian guageDescriptive function convey factual information< Expressive functionsupplies in formatio n

14、I Social function maintain social relations between peopleStructural li nguist Roma n Jakobs on- Addresser-emotive addresser express his attitude towards the topic or situati onAddressee-conative the addresseraims to in flue nee addressee ' s acti on7Context-referential: addresser con veys a mes

15、sage or in formatio nMessage-poetic: use Ian guage to display the beauty of Ian guage Contact- hatic com muni cati on: it tries to establish or main tai n in- terpers onal relati ons一 Code-metalinguistic make clear the meaning of Ianguage itselfIn early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday厂 7 funct

16、ion in children.3 in adults:Ideational function: organize one ' s experienee, attitude, evaluation, feeli ng, and emotio nsA Interpersonal function: establish and maintain in terpers onal relationsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such a 匕 manner that they are cohere nt wit

17、hi n themselves and fit the particular situatio n in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of Ian guageLimited range of sounds con stitute the phonic medium of Ian guage.The in dividual sounds with in the range are the speech soun ds.Phon eticsWhat is pho netics?Phonetics is define

18、d as the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occurs in the worldArticu latory phon etics: studies the sounds form speaker's Ianguages.'s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech orga ns to articulate the soundsAuditory phonetics: studies

19、from the hearer ' s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phon etics: the way sounds travel by look ing at the sounds waves.Chapter 4SyntaxWhat is it?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sentences.Words categoriesIn

20、 traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditional categories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).Two divisionMajor lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, adjective, preposition.Minor lexical categories: d

21、eterminer 限定词 , degree words, qualifier 限定语 , auxiliary, conjunction.Criteria ：Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation, and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives, those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some word

22、s do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different categories, e.g. be aware of and knowIn fleet ion:1) noun -s or -es in dicat ing plural2) adjectives-er or -est indicating comparative degree an

23、d superlative degree3) verb -ing and -ed indicating progressive and past tense Deficiency: some words do not take inflectionsDistribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur with certain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e

24、.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structureXP ruleXPSpecifier head complementNP(Det)N(PP)VP(Qual)V(NP)AP(Deg)A(PP) Coordin ati on ruleNo limit on the nu mber of coord in ated categories prior to the conj un cti on.A category at any level (head or

25、XP) can be coord in ated.Coordin ated categories must be of the same type.The category type of coord in ate phrase is ide ntical to the category type of eleme nts being conj oin ed.Structure: XX, X, X Con XPhrase eleme nts:SpecifiersRole: 1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically, mark the phrase boun dary.Differe nt term of specifiers before differe nt heads.SpecifiersHeadsExamplesDetermi nersNThe book, no water, this bookQualifiersVAlways, n ever failDegree wordsALess in terest ing, quite good, very sen sitivePAlmost in