英语语言学第1-3章课后练习题答案

1、新编简明英语语言学教程第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1 IntroductionP131. HowdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionofIinguistics:LinguisticsisthescientificstudyofIanguage答：LinguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofIinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraItheoryofIanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenature

2、andruIesoftheunderlyingIanguagesystem,theIinguistshastocoIIectandobserveIanguagefactsfirst,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneraIizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformuIatessomehypothesesabouttheIanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyp

3、rovetheirvaIidity.InIinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipIine,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcompIementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardIyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexpIainedbysometheoryremainamuddIedmassofthings.2. WhatarethemajorbranchesofIinguisticsWhatdoeseachofthemstudy答：Themaj

4、orbranchesofIinguisticsare:(1) phonetics:itstudiesthesoundsusedinIinguiSticcommunication;(2) phonoIogy:itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;(3) morphology:itstudiesthewayinwhichIinguiSticsymboIsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;(4) syntax:itstudiest

5、heruIeswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;(5) semantics:itstudiesmeaningconveyedbyIanguage;(6) pragmatics:itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextofIanguageuse.3. InwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernIinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar答：ThegeneraIapproachthustraditionall

6、yformedtothestudyofIanguageovertheyearsisroughIyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.ModernIinguistiesdiffersfromtraditionaIgrammarinseveraIbasicways.FirstIy,Iinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modemIinguisticsregardsthespokenIanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgra

7、mmarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partIybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modemIinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaraIsointhatitdoesnotforceIanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4. IsmodernIinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronicWhy答：InmodemIinguist

8、ics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.BecausepeopIebeIievedthatunIessthevariousstatesofaIanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfuIIystudied,itwouIdbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenpIaceinitshistoricaIdevelopment.5. ForwhatreasonsdoesmodernIinguisticsgiveprio

9、ritytospeechratherthantowriting答：SpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofIinguisticcommunication.ModemIinguisticsregardsthespokenIanguageasthenaturaIortheprimarymediumofhumanIanguageforsomeobviousreasons.FromthepointofviewofIinguisticevoIution,speechispriortowriting.ThewritingsystemofanyIanguageisaIway

10、s“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday1sworIdtherearestillmanyIanguagesthatcanonIybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechpIaysagreaterroIethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.AndaIso,speechisaIwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismoth

11、ertongue,andwritingisIearnedandtaughtIaterwhenhegoestoschooI.FormodernIinguists,spokenIanguagereveaIsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenIanguageisonIytherevised”recordofspeech.ThustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostIydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.6. HowisSaussure1s

12、distinetionbetweenIangueandparolesimilartoChomsky1sdistinetionbetweencompetenceandperformance答：Saussure*sdistinctionandChomsky1sareverysimilar,theydifferatIeastinthatSaussuretookasociologicaIviewofIanguageandhisnotionofIangueisamatterofsociaIconventions,andChomskyIooksatIanguagefromapsychoIogicaIpoi

13、ntofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividuaL7. WhatcharacteristicsofIanguagedoyouthinkshouIdbeincIudedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionofIanguage答：Firstofall,languageisasystem,elementsofIanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,Ianguageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconn

14、ectionbetweenaIinguisticsymboIandwhatthesymboIstandsfor.Third,IanguageisvocaIbecausetheprimarymediumforaIIIanguagesissound.Fourth,Ianguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsofIifepossess.8. WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanIanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hockett

15、toshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem（2.2语言的识别性特征，美国语言学家C.Hockett提出了人类语言的12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。这些特征是所有人类语言所共有的。人类语言的识别性特征是动物“语言”所不具有的。1）任意性：它指音与义之间没有逻辑联系。比如说，不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。2）创造性：语言的创造性主要表现在语言使用者能够以有限的语言规则为基础说出和理解无限的句子，包括他们以前从没有听说过的句子。3）二重性：它指

16、语言在结构上存在两个层次：低层次和高层次。在低层次是一个个没有意义的音，如/p/,/g/,/i/等，但是这些处在低层次的没有意义的音可以依照一定的语言规则结合在一起形成语言体系的高层次，即：有意义的单位，如词素，单词等。4）移位性：移位性指人类可以使用语言来谈论过去的事情，现在的事情或将来的事情；语言也可以用来谈论我们客观世界中的事情，或假想世界中的事情。总之，语言的使用可以脱离交际的直接情景语境，从而不受语言时空距离的影响。5）文化传递性：文化的传递性是指，虽然人类习得语言的能力有遗传因素的原因，但是语言体系具体内容的习得不是通过遗传来传递的，而是要通过后天的学习来获得。答：Themainf

17、eaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeatures.Theyinclude:1) ArbitrarinessLanguageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.AgoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentIanguages.2) ProductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthati

18、tmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignaIsbyitsusers.ThisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelyIargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.3) DuaIityLanguageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwoIeveIs.AttheIowerorthebasicIeveIthereisastructureofsounds,whicha

19、remeaninglessbythemseIves.ButthesoundsofIanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoaIargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherIeveIofthesystem.4) DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,reaIorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awaypIaces.Inotherwords

20、,Ianguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“dispIacement”means.5) CuIturaItransmissionWhilehumancapacityforIanguagehasageneticbasis,wewerealIbornwiththeabilitytoacquireIanguage,thedetaiIsofanyIanguagesystemarenotgeneticaIlytransmitted,butinsteadhavetob

21、etaughtandlearned.9. WhatarethemajorfunctionsofIanguageThinkofyourownexampIesforillustration.答：ThreemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedofIanguage:thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesociaIfunction.ThedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiontoconveyfactuaIinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,and

22、insomecasesevenverified.ForexampIe:ChinaisalargecountrywithaIonghistory.”TheexpressivefunctionsuppIiesinformationabouttheuser,sfeeIings,preferences,prejudices,andvaIues.Forexample:IwiIInevergowindow-shoppingwithher.”ThesociaIfunctionservestoestabIishandmaintainsociaIreIationsbetweenpeopIe.Forexample

23、:Weareyourfirmsupporters.”Chapter 2 PhonoIogyP301. WhatarethetwomajormediaofIinguisticcommunicationOfthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy答：SpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofIinguisticcommunication.OfthetwomediaofIanguage,speechismoreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pIeaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobIemi

24、ntheIastchapter.2. Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused答：VoicingisaquaIityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofaIIvoweIsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.ItiscausedbythevibrationofthevocaIcords.3. ExplainwithexampIeshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondifferThetranscriptionwithIetter-symboIsonIyiscalledbroadtranscri

25、ption.ThisisthetranscriptionnormaIIyusedindietionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneraIpurposes.TheIatter,.thetranscriptionwithIetter-symboIstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.WiththeheIpofthediacriticsthey

26、canfaithfuIIyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetaiIsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymboIIisusedforthesoundsIinthefourwordsleafIi:f,feelfi:I,buiIdbiId,andhealthheI0Asamatteroffact,thesoundIinaIIthesefoursoundcombinationsdifferssIightIy.TheIinIi:f,occurringbeforeavoweI,iscalledadearI,

27、andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the1infi:IandbiId,occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromthecIear1asin“leaf”.ItiscalleddarkIandinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic-isusedtoindicateit.TheninthesoundcombinationheI9,thesoundIisfollowedbytheEnglishdentaIsound9,itspro

28、nunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentaIsoundthatfoIIowsit.ItisthuscalledadentaII,andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic、isusedtoindicateit.ItistranscribedasheI6AnotherexampIeistheconsonantp.WeaIIknowthatpispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesoundpispronouncedwithastrongpuffof

29、air,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,thepsoundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,thepsoundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmaIIraisedhisusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedasphitandspitistranscribedasspit.4. Howar

30、etheEnglishconsonantsclassified答：EnglishconsonantscanbecIassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofpIaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEngIishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,Iiquids,nasaIsandglides.IntermsofpI

31、aceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,IabiodentaI,dentaI,aIveoIar,paIataI,veIarandgIottaI.5. WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEngIishvoweIs答：VoweIsmaybedistinguishedasfront,centraI,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheIdhighest.Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,wene

32、edtoappIyanothercriterion,.theopennessofthemouth.AccordingIy,wecIassifythevoweIsintofourgroups:cIosevoweIs,semi-cIosevoweIs,semi-openvoweIs,andopenvoweIs.AthirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvoweIsistheshapeoftheIips.InEnglish,aIIthefrontvoweIsandthecentraIvoweIsareunfoundedvoweIs,ie.,

33、withoutroundingtheIips,andaIIthebackvoweIs,withtheexceptionofa:,arerounded.ItshouIdbenotedthatsomefrontvoweIscanbepronouncedwithroundedIips.6. A.GivethephoneticsymboIforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:1) voicedpaIataIaffricate2) voicelessIabiodentaIfricative3) voicedaIveoIarstop4) front,cIose,sh

34、ort5) back,semi-open,long6) voiceIessbilabialstopB.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:1) t2)I3)4)w5)u6)ae(5)o:(6)(2)voicedaIveoIar答：A.(1)应(2)f(3)d(4)pB.(1)voicelessaIveoIarstopIiquid(4)voicedbilabial(3)voicelesspaIataIaffricateglide(5)back,cIose,short(6)front,open1.Howdophoneticsandph

35、onoIogydifferintheirfocusofstudyWhodoyouthinkwi11bemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,Iandt,phandp,aphoneticianoraphonoIogistWhy答：(1)BothphonoIogyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectofIanguage-thespeechsounds.ButwhilebotharereIatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phone

36、ticsisofageneraInature;itisinterestedinaIIthespeechsoundsusedinaIIhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.PhonoIogy,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinaIanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeani

37、nginIinguisticcommunication.(2) AphonoIogistwiIIbemoreinterestedinit.BecauseoneofthetasksofthephonoIogistsistofindoutruIethatgovernsthedistributionofIand1,p1andp.8. WhatisaphoneHowisitdifferentfromaphonemeHowareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme答：Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandprodu

38、ceduringIinguiSticcommunicationareaIIphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorreaIizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.ThedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheaIIophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/I/inEnglishcanber

39、eaIizedasdarkI,cIearI,etc.whichareaIIophonesofthephoneme/I/.9. ExplainwithexampIesthesequentiaIrule,theassimiIationrule,andthedeIetionrule.答：RuIesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularIanguagearecalledsequentiaIrules.TherearemanysuchsequentiaIruIesinEnglish.ForexampIe,ifawordbeginswithaIorar,

40、thenthenextsoundmustbeavoweI.ThatiswhyIbikIkbiareimpossibIecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.TheassimilationruIeassimiIatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying“afeatureofasequentiaIphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimiIar.Assimilationofneighboringsoundsis,forthemostp

41、art,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy“tendencymaybecomereguIarizedasruIesoflanguage.WeaIIknowthatnasaIizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEngIish,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvoweIsinEnglisharenevernasaIizedi

42、nactuaIpronunciation;infacttheyarenasaIizedincertainphoneticcontexts.ForexampIe,thei:soundisnasaIizedinwordsIikebean,green,team,andscream.ThisisbecauseinaIIthesesoundcombinationsthei:soundisfoIIowedbyanasaInorm.TheassimilationruIeaIsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationoftheaIveoIarnasaIninsomesoundco

43、mbinations.TheruIeisthatwithinaword,thenasaInassumesthesamepIaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfoIIowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtomaadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,.discreet-indiscreet,correct-incorrect.ButthensoundintheprefixirrisnotaIwayspronouncedasanaIveoIarnasa1.11

44、issointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,.d,isanaIveoIarstop,butthensoundinthewordincorrectisactuaIIypronouncedasaveIarnasaI,.rj;thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfoIIowsitisk,whichisaveIarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesoundn,weare“copyingafeatureoftheconsonantthatfoIIowsit.DeIetio

45、nruIetellsuswhenasoundistobedeIetedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisnogsoundaIthoughitisrepresentedinspeIIingbytheIetterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,thegrepresentedbytheIetter

46、gispronounced.TheruIecanbestatedas:DeIeteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasaIconsonant.GiventheruIe,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign-signature,resign-resignation,phlegm-phlegmatic,paradigm-paradigmaticwiIIincIudethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeIetedaccordingtothereguIarruIeifnosuffixisadded.10. Whata

47、resupra-segmentalfeaturesHowdothemajorsupra-segmentaIfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning答：ThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovetheIeveIofthesegmentsarecalledsupra-segmentaIfeatures.Themainsupra-segmentaIfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.The

48、rearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.ForexampIe,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbaIthoughitsspeIIingremainsunchanged.TonesarepitchvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustIikephonemes.IntonationpIaysanimportantroIeintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteveryIanguage

49、,especiaIIyinaIanguageIikeEnglish.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Chapter3MorphologyP401. Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacingabetweeneachmorphemeandthenext:a.microfiIee.teIecommunicationb.bedraggledf.forefatherc.announcementg.psychophy

50、sicsd.predigestionh.mechanist答：a.micro+fiIeb.be+draggle+edc. announce+mentd. pre+digest+ione. tele+communicate+ionf.fore+fatherg. psycho+physicsh. mechan+ist2. Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.GiveatleasttwoexampIesofeach.ModeI:-orsuffix:-orme

51、aning:thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:actor,“onewhoactsinstagepIays,motionpictures,etc.transIator,“onewhotranslates”答：(1)suffix:-abIemeaning:somethingcanbedoneorispossibIestemtype:addedtoverbsexampIes:acceptabIe,“canbeacceptednrespectabIe,“canberespectedv(2) suffix:-lymeaning:functionaIstemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:freeIy.adverbialformoffreequickly,uadverbiaIformof1quick1(3) suffix:-eemeaning:thepersonreceivingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:empIoyee,“onewhoworksinacompanyMinterviewee,“onewhoisinterviewed”3. Thinkofthreemorphemepref