causecomparison

1、Cause and Effect v Cause and effect analysis is a form of logical writing in which the writer examines the causes and /or effects of something. In cause and effect analysis, the cause usually refers to one or several actions，events，attitudes， and conditions in the past，which explains why something h

2、appened. It helps to answer the question Why? The effect，on the other hand，examines the consequences of the cause. It answers the question So what?Points to be observedv1. The cause is necessary to the effectv2. The cause is sufficient for the effectv3. The cause is both necessary to and sufficient

3、for the effectWriting Purpose vGenerally speaking, the purpose of writing a cause and effect essay is to find out and analyze both the cause and the effect of a certain event. But in some cases, your essay may just focus on the causes of a certain event or just on the effects of a certain event. v T

4、herefore, when you are collecting materials for the writing, you should know clearly whether you are going to find out the causes or analyze the effects, or both. If you are going to find out the causes for a certain event, you look back on the past to see what causes it to happen. On the other hand

5、, if you are going to analyze the effects of a certain event, you look into the future to make some predictionsII. Types of Cause-Effect Patternv2.1 Casual Chainv2.2 Cause因-Effect果causeeffect (cause)effect (cause)effect (cause)effectthe most immediate effectJims father has a bad temper, and he often

6、 beats Jims mother and the kids. (domestic violence)Jims mother leaves Jims father, taking the son with her.Example:With shabby income from Jims mother, the family is in short of money, so the family experiences financial problems.The boyfriend of Jims mother moves in to help the family finances.Jim

7、 feels unwanted in his new home and runs away.a homeless childvWhat has sparked the increasing interest in exercise ? For one thing , people have gained a greater awareness of the need for physical fitness . For another , the constantly improving standard of living enables Chinese people to patroniz

8、e the increasing number of recreational venues . The main thing perhaps centers on the healthcare and psychological benefits exercise provides .什么引发了人们对锻炼越来越浓的兴趣？一方面，人们更加清楚地意识到保持身体健康的必要性。另一方面，不断提高的生活水平使中国人能够支付增加的娱乐支出。最主要的原因可能在于锻炼带来的身心健康的双赢。 Sentence Pattern to Follow Cause and Effect Diagram (“Fishb

9、one”)Fishbone How?vDescribe the problem of interestvDecide the major causes typically the 6 Ms Manpower, Machines, Materials, Methods, Measurements, Mother Nature (Environment)vDiscuss causes and decide which are most importantvDrive those most important to root causeEffectCause 1Cause 2Cause 31 : H

10、as the cause/effect relationship been effectively addressed ? v2 : Has sufficient supporting detail been included ? v3 : Does the writing contain an effective opening and closing ? v4 : Does the writing form a meaningful whole ?Writing and Revising Evaluating effectstherefore, soas a result, consequ

11、ently,accordingly,because of this,thus, hence,for this reason,result in causesdue to, because of,owing to, as a result of, on account of , for,on the ground of,through , because,since, as,on the ground thatTransitional Words and Phrases 常用于因果分析法的连接词常用于因果分析法的连接词 because, because of, for, since, due t

12、o, owing to, thanks to, as a result (of), accordingly, hence, so, thus, therefore, consequently, for this reason For one thing, for another, The first reason is that the second one is It is mainly (partly) because of It is not that , but that It is not because but because This is why Comparison and

13、Contrast DefinedvComparison is concerned with organizing and developing points of similarityhow your mother and father are alike, how the culture of Mexico resembles that of Spain.vContrast has the same function for dissimilarityhow American football differs from soccer, how you are different today

14、from the way you were five years ago.vApproaches:v Focus only on the similarities between two things (comparison).v Focus only the differences between two things (contrast).v Focus on both the similarities and the differences between two things (comparison/contrast).Basis for Comparison and Contrast

15、v语言学家普遍认为词汇不是语义构成的最小单位，而是由一些更小的语义单位组成的具有不同意义的单位，为此他们提出了语义成分分析理论与方法。v语义成分分析最早用于词汇分析如vman: +human +adult +malevwoman: +human +adult -malevboy : +human -adult +malevgirl: +human -adult -male（一）确定范围 v如要分析“父亲”的义素，首先找出“母亲”来比较，可以得出男性与女性的区别，再找出“儿子、女儿”来比较，可以得出上一辈和下一辈的区别，再找“丈夫、妻子”来比较，可得出生育关系与婚姻关系的区别。这时，这些词语都能

16、相互区别了，而且也能与其他词语相区别了。 （二）比较异同 v表示近亲属关系的词语“父亲、母亲、儿子、女儿、丈夫、妻子、哥哥、姐姐、弟弟、妹妹”：v义项 性别 辈分 关系 年龄 类属v父亲 男性 上一辈 生育关系 亲属v母亲 女性 上一辈 生育关系 亲属v儿子 男性 下一辈 被生育关系 亲属v女儿 女性 下一辈 被生育关系 亲属v丈夫 男性 同辈 婚姻关系 亲属v妻子 女性 同辈 婚姻关系 亲属v哥哥 男性 同辈 同胞关系 年长 亲属v姐姐 女性 同辈 同胞关系 年长 亲属v弟弟 男性 同辈 同胞关系 年幼 亲属v妹妹 女性 同辈 同胞关系 年幼 亲属（三）简化义素 v父亲男性生育关系亲属v母亲

17、男性生育关系亲属v儿子男性生育关系亲属v女儿男性生育关系亲属v丈夫男性婚姻关系亲属v妻子男性婚姻关系亲属v哥哥男性同胞关系年长亲属v姐姐男性同胞关系年长亲属v弟弟男性同胞关系年长亲属v妹妹男性同胞关系年长亲属 动词模式（例1）v 进来物体、朝向参照点、从外面、移动、到里面v进去物体、背向参照点、从外面、移动、到里面v出来物体、朝向参照点、从里面、移动、到外面v出去物体、背向参照点、从里面、移动、到外面v上来物体、朝向参照点、从下面、移动、到上面v上去物体、背向参照点、从下面、移动、到上面v下来物体、朝向参照点、从上面、移动、到下面v下去物体、背向参照点、从上面、移动、到下面 动词模式（例2）v

18、 娶=男人、在男方家、与女人、结婚v嫁=女人、在男方家、与男人、结婚v入赘=男人、在女方家、与女人、结婚动词模式（例3）v美国语言学家奈达（E.A.Nida）在分析英语中的跑、走等七个表示人的肢体活动的词的语义时，曾经列出如下的义素矩阵：v 总有一肢肢体接触 接触地面v接触地面地面的顺序的肢数vrun 1-2-1-2 2vwalk 1-2-1-2 2vHop 1-1-1/2-2-2 1vskip 1-1-2-2 2vjump 2 vdance 变异但有韵律 2vcrawl 1-3-2-4 4动词模式（例4）v炒用水、油量大、不断翻动、加淀粉汁v熘用水、油量大、不断翻动、加淀粉汁v炸用水、油量大

19、、不断翻动v煎用水、油量大、不断翻动（三）形容词模式 v义项范围、方面、程度、性状 v凉物体或气候、温度、比较、低v冷物体或气候、温度、相当、低v热物体或气候、温度、相当、高v烫物体、温度、非常、高义素分析可以在如下语义场中进行v联想义场联想义场v父亲、母亲、儿子、女儿、丈夫、妻子、哥哥、姐姐、弟弟、妹妹v镰刀、锤子、斧子（工具、有柄、用场（用于收割、用于敲打、用于劈砍）、形状（弧形、园方形、楔形）v同义义场同义义场v边疆、边境（地域、靠近国境、面积大小）v取消、取缔（不让继续存在、语义程度轻重）v反义义场反义义场v东、西（方向、太阳升起落下的地方）v生、死（生物、有无生命）v多义义场多义义场

20、（派生关系）“活”v生存（基本义）：生物有生命（活人）v在活的状态下：生物状态有生命（活捉）v救活抢救生物结果（活了五个）v活动、灵活生物易动（活水、活页）v生动活泼/生物死板（活蹦乱跳）v真正、简直/生物幻觉（活现）练习v叔叔、伯伯、姑夫、舅舅、岳父、公公v扛、挑、抬、背、抱、举、提v氢气、一氧化碳、甲烷v氧气、淡水v淡水、海水第三节 语义的聚合v提纲：v一、语义场v（一）语义场的性质：层次性、系统性、相对性v（二）语义场的类型：v1、二元义场：关系型二元义场；异质型二元义场v2、多元义场：有序型多元义场；无序型多元义场。v二、语义的聚合关系v1、纵聚合关系：上下义关系、总分关系v2、横聚合

21、关系：同义关系、反义关系、类义关系v3、义项派生关系：链式引申、辐式引申、混合式引申Two Patterns for Comparison/ ContrastvThe Block (subject-by-subject) pattern:vPresent all of your information about the first item (Item A) and then to present all of your information about the second item (Item B). vBest for short, relatively simple essays.

22、vTips: va. To help readers keep track of your points of comparison/contrast, discuss the same points in the same order for Items A and B.vb. Strong topic sentences and effective use of transitions help to unify the points of comparison of the two items under discussion.Suppose you are comparing and

23、contrasting yourself with your roommate in terms of tidiness and study habits.Block PatternIntroductionBody Paragraph 1: Item A Me: my tidinessBody Paragraph 2: Item A Me: my study habitsBody Paragraph 3: Item B My roommate: his tidinessBody Paragraph 4: Item B My roommate: his study habits Conclusi

24、onThe Point-by-Point PatternvMove back and forth between Item A and Item B on each point of comparison/contrast. You would use the same sequence throughout the essayfirst discuss Item A and then Item B. Alternating between Item A and Item B helps readers to keep both items clearly in mind and enable

25、s them to follow your comparisons and contrasts easily.vBest for longer, more complex essays.vTips: va. To help readers keep track of your points of comparison/ contrast, discuss the same points in the same order for Items A and B.vb. Strong topic sentences and effective use of transitions help to unify the points of comparison of the two items under discussion.Point-by-Point PatternIntroductionBody Paragraph 1: Main Point 1: I am tidier than my roommate.Item A: my tidinessItem B: my roommate: his tidinessBody