语言学概论期末复习(男神版)

1、语言学概论Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1. WhatislanguageSensesoflanguageinWebstersNewWorldDictionary（ourbook,p.2） “Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（Wardaugh）2. Designfeaturesoflanguage语言设计特征1. arbitrariness狂意性）2.duality双重性）3. Creativity创造性）orproductivity4.displacement

2、够位性）5.interchangeability（互换性）6.specialization华业化）7.culturaltransmission（文化传承）3. FunctionsofLanguage语言功能）Jakobsonsview:（情感功能）（指代功能）（诗学功能）（寒暄功能）（元语言）（1动功能）Hallidaysview:1.ideationalfunction（概念功能）2.Interpersonalfunction（人际功能）3.Textualfunction（语篇功能）Functionsonthebook:传知，性的）Function（A际功能）（行事功能）FunctionCo

3、mmunion（寒暄功能）Function娱乐功能）Function阮语言功能）4. WhatIsLinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageorthescienceoflanguage.?1）Exhaustiveness（穷尽性）2）Consistency（贯通性）3）Economy（经济性）4）Objectivity（客观性）vs.performance言语能力vs.言语行为?NoamChomskyinhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax?Competencereferstoalanguageusersun

4、derlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.?Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Chapter 2Speechsounds1. ConsonantsandvowelsDistinctionbetweenconsonantsandvowels:theobstruction(阻塞)ofairstream2. Minimalpairsandminimalsets(最/J、对立体) Whentwowordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforacontr

5、astinonesoundsegmentoccurringinthesamepositioninthestring,thetwowordsarecalledaminimalpair最小对立体.:pitandbitjunkandchunkbanandbinbetandbat Aminimalpairshouldfollowthreeconditions:1)theyaredifferentinmeaning;2)theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment;3)thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.Chapte

6、r 3Frommorphemetophrase1. Root&affixRoot词根:morphemewhichisthebasicpartofaword.(Occuronitsown、maybejoinedtootherroots、ortakeaffixes(manly,coldness)orcombiningforms(biochemistry)2 Itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.3 .AllwordscontainarootmorphemeAffix词缀:letterorsound,orgroupofletters

7、orsounds(=amorpheme),whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword.(Prefix前缀,Suffix后缀，infix中缀：feet,geese)2. inflectionalaffixft折词缀andderivationalaffix派生词缀Chapter 5Meaning1. TheReferentialTheory(所指理论)Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,is

8、knownasthereferentialtheory.Reference所指referstotherelationshipbetweenawordandtheobjectitdenotesinthephysicalworld,.denotation夕卜延inphilosophy.Isaverypopulartheory(semantictrianglebyOgdenandRichardsinMeaningofMeaning)Problemswiththistheory:Noteverywordhasareference所指.2. Senserelations意义关系Sensemaybedef

9、inedasthesemanticrelationsbetweenonewordandanother,ormoregenerallybetweenonelinguisticunitandanother.*distinctionsbetweensenseandreference:Thedistinctionbetweensenseandreferenceiscomparabletothatbetweenconnotationanddenotationinphilosophy Theformerreferstotheabstractpropertiesofanentity,whilethelatt

10、erreferstotheconcreteentitieshavingtheseproperties. Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.RReferenceinitswidersensewouldbetherelationshipbetweenawordorphraseandanentityintheexternalworld.Sosenseisintra-linguisticandreferenceisextra-llinguistic3. 3kindsofsenserelations:Synonymy（同义关系）Semanti

11、crelationofsamenessorsimilarityinmeaningoftwoormorelinguisticexpressions.（absolutesynonyms绝对同义词、relativesynonyms相对同义词、Stylisticsynonyms文体同义词、Emotivesynonyms情感同义词、Collocationalsynonyms：搭酉己同义词）Antonymy（反义关系） Relationofsemanticopposition. threemainsub-types：）1Gradableantonymy（等级反义关系）：Theyaregradable;th

12、edenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.（hotcoldwarmcooltallshortbigsmall） Complementaryantonymy(互补反义关系)Themembersofapairinthistypearecomplementarytoeachother.Thereisnointermediategroundbetweenthetwo.(alivedeadoddevensinglemarriedmalefemalepassfail

13、hitmiss) Converseantonymy(相反反义关系)Themembersofapairinthistypeshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.Theyarealsoknownasrelationalopposites.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.(buysellgivereceivehusbandwifeteacherstudentabovebelowbeforeafter)Hyponymy(上下义关系)Arelationshipbe

14、tweentwowords,inwhichthemeaningofoneofthewordsincludesthemeaningoftheotherword.Sometimesasuperordinatemaybeasuperordinatetoitself.Asuperordinatemaybemissingsometimes.(redgreenyellow)Hyponymsmayalsobemissincj.(unclerice)4. Componentialanalysis（成分分析）Componentialanalysis:（insemantics）anapproachtothestu

15、dyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Usually,componentialanalysisisappliedtoagroupofrelatedwordswhichmaydifferfromoneanotheronlybyoneortwocomponents.Semanticfeatures语义特征orsemanticcomponentsarethebasicunitofmeaninginaword.Themeaningsofwordsmaybedescribedasacombin

16、ationofsemanticfeatures.5. Anintegratedtheory（整体理论）Theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombinedisusuallyknownastheprincipleofcompositionality（复合性原则）adictionaryYasemantictheoryLasetofprojectionrules投射规则Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificat

17、ionandsemanticinformationofwords.Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.Chapter 6LanguageandcognitioniscognitionTwodefinitionsaboutcognition: Inpsychologyitreferstothementalprocessesofanindividualwithparticularrelationtotheviewthatarguesthatthemindhasinternalstates（be

18、liefs,desires,andintentions）andcanbeunderstoodintermsofinformationprocessing. Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgement.2. Whatispsycholinguistics（心理语言学）Definition:isthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguages;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstat

19、esandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.6subjectsofresearchwithinpsycholinguistics:Acquisition（语言习得）Comprehension语言理解）LanguageandthoughtProduction（语言产出）Disorders（语言无序性）Neurocognition3. WhatisCognitiveLinguisticsDefinition:isanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguage.Chapter 7Language,cu

20、ltureandSociety1. LanguageandCulture Whatisculture:Culture,inabroadsense,meansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustom

21、s,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc. TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureAlanguagenotonlyexpressesfacts,ideas,oreventswhichrepresentsimilarworldknowledgebyitspeople,butalsoreflectsthepeoplesattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooksetc.Inaword,languageexpressesculturalrea

22、lity.2. Sapir-WhorfHypothesis（萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设）So）irandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.Thishypothesisprimarilysuggeststhatourlanguagewillmouldourviewoftheworld.Butfewpeoplewouldtendto

23、accepttheoriginalforthistheory.Thus,twoversions,strongversionandweakversionhavebeendeveloped.thestrongversion:thelanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplethinkingandbehavior.theweakversion:theformerinfluencesthelatter.3. Languageandsociety Definitionofsociolinguistics（社会语言学）:Sociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldofli

24、nguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive. Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety1） Whilelanguageisprincipallyusedtocommunicatemeaning,itisalsousedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.2） Usersofthesamela

25、nguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Thekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyhissocialbackground.3） Tosomeextent,language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety4） Judgmentsconcerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesares

26、ocialratherthanlinguistic.4. Hallidaysregistertheory:Definitionofregister（语域）:Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Fieldofdiscourse（语场）referstowhatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguage.Tenorofdiscourse（语旨）refers“tcwhomthespeakeriscommunicatingModeofdisco

27、urse（语式）mainlyreferstothemeansofcommunication.Chapter 8Languageinuse1. WhatisPragmaticsthestudyoflanguageinuse.2. Speechacttheory1）Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse,whichoriginatedwiththeOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustin:HowtoDoThingswithWords2）Speechact:anutterance（表达）asafunctionalunit

28、incommunication.Inspeechacttheory,utteranceshavetwokindsofmeaning:a. propositionalmeaning命题意义（alsoknownaslocutionarymeaning发话意义）b. illocutionarymeaning行事意义（alsoknownasillocutionaryforce行事语力）.Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaningandillocutionaryforce.3） 2typesofsentences:an

29、utterancePerformatives（施为句；行事话语）whichperformsanactConstative（表述句；述事话语）:anutterancewhichassertssomethingthatiseithertrueorfalse.*Ithasevenbeensuggestedthatthereisnorealdifferencebetweenconstativeandimplicitperformatives.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.theoryofthe川ocutionaryact（行事行为理论）Threedifferentty

30、pesofactinvolvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence:Locutionaryact（发话行为）isthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.Illocutionaryact（行事行为）isusingasentencetoperformafunction,relatedtothespeakerntentionsiPerlocutionaryact（取效行为）istheresultoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsomething.4

31、. CategoriesofspeechactsbySearle1. Representative；（阐述类）:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.Iswear）2. Directives（指令类）:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.Yourmoneyoryourlife.）3. Commissives（承诺类）:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Ipromise.）4. Expressive（表情类）:exp

32、ressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.Thankyou）5. Declarations（宣告类）:bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.youarefired.）theoryofconversationalimplicature会话含义理论ThesecondmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuseproposedbyHerbertPaulGrice:LogicandConversation.1）Definition:Conversationalimplic

33、atureisatypeofmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims2）Characteristicsofimplicature:Qalculability（可计算性）cancellability/defeasibility（可删除性/可取消性）Non-detachability（非可分离性）Non-conventionality（非规约性）1. Thecooperativeprinciple合

34、作原贝U:Theco-operationbetweenspeakersinusingtheconversationalmaximsiscalledthecooperativeprinciple.maxim对话准贝U:anunwrittenruleaboutconversationwhichpeopleknowandwhichinfluencestheformofconversationalexchangesGriceintroduced4categoriesofmaxims:a.themaximofQuantityb.themaximofQualityc.themaximofRelationd

35、.themaximofMannerdevelopments1） Relevancetheory关联理论Definition:Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.（每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该行为本身具备最适宜关联）2） theQ-andR-principleThesetwoprinciplewasproposedbyLaurenceHorn TheQ-principleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGricesQuanti

36、ty,andtlprincipletheRelationmaxim,butthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims. HornreducesalltheGriceanmaximstotwoprinciples:theQ-andR-principleA. TheQ-principle(hearer-based):MakeyourcontributionsufficientSayasmuchasyoucanB. TheR-principle(speaker-based):MakeyourcontributionnecessarySay

37、nomorethanyoumustInotherwords,theQ-principleisconcernedwiththecontent.TheR-principle,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwiththeform.Chapter11LinguisticandForeignLanguageTeaching1. Definition:SLA:Secondlanguageacquisition语习得CPH:CriticalPeriodHypothesis关键期AK设UG:UniversalGrammar普遍语法LAD：LanguageAcquisitionDevice语言习得基质IL：Interlanguage中介语CA：ContrastiveAnalysis对比分析EA:ErrorAnalysis错误分析2. UniversalGrammar普遍语法Universalgrammarholdsthattherearecertainbasicstructuralrulesthatgovernlanguagethatallhumansknowwithouthavingtolearnthem.3. InputandlanguagelearningLanguageAcquisitionDevice语言习得基质1) KrashensInputHypothesis