英汉翻译教案

1、Chapter One Part One Definition of TranslationI Length of time: two hours II Teaching aims: 1 familiarize Ss with the definition of translation;2 help Ss to master the classification of translation; 3 familiarize Ss with the history of translation in ChinaIII Main teaching points: definition of tran

2、slation; classification of translation; history of translation in ChinaIV Teaching procedure:1 Definition1.1 Translation in broad sense: Translation of basic information between language and language, language variety and language variety as well as language and non-language code.(eg: a. from Englis

3、h to Chinese or vice versa; b. from Cantonese to Putonghua or standard Chinese; from ancient Chinese to contemporary Chinese; c. from traffic sign to traffic regulations)1.2 Translation in narrow sensea. change of language 宋僧法云：“夫翻译者，谓翻梵天之语，转为汉地之言。音虽似别，义则大同。”（翻译名义集）The Oxford English Dictionary: to

4、turn from one language into anotherWebsters Third New International Dictionary of the English Language: to turn into ones own or another language.b. convey of meaning: 林汉达：“什么叫做正确的翻译呢？就是尽可能地按照中国语文的习惯，忠实地表达原文中所有的意义。”瞿秋白：“翻译应当把原文的本意，完全正确地介绍给中国读者。”Meaning: 刘宓庆：语际意义分为六种概念（主题）意义、语境意义、形式意义、风格意义、形象意义、文化意义。

5、Nida 把翻译中的“意义”概括为“语义”和“文体”：translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.c. inseparability between both content and form费道罗夫：翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容和形式不可分割的统一中业已表达了出来的东西准

6、确而完全地表达出来。d. speech act/communicative activity. Translation is related not only to language itself, but also the communicative context and personal experience and knowledge of the participants. eg: Translation theories are not only based on pure linguistics, but also many other non-language elements

7、.e. Social and historical background (external context)张今：翻译是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具，其目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经济和（或）文化进步，它的任务是要把原作中包含的现实世界的逻辑映象或艺术映象，完好无损地从一种语言中移注到另一种语言中去。As a communicative process and communicative tool as well, translation, with the aim to promote the political, economic and (or) cultural devel

8、opment in the language community of the target language, is to convey in an intact way the logic and artistic reflection of the actual world in the original work from one language to the other.孙致礼：翻译是把一种语言表达的意义用另一种语言表达出来，以达到沟通思想情感、传播文化知识、促进社会文明，特别是推动译语文化兴旺昌盛的目的。2 Classification2.1 the nature of the

9、two codes involved: a. intralingual translation eg: a from argot to general language; from ancient Chinese to modern Chinese such as the translation of Records of the Historian; b. interlingual translation; c. intersemiotic translation. 2.2 the nature of subjects: a. human translation b. machine tra

10、nslation2.3 the form of tool and product: a. interpretation (consecutive interpretation and simultaneous translation) b. written translation2.4 the nature of material: literal translation and pragmatic translationTranslationOral translation written translationNon-literary translation literary transl

11、ationPractical writing News report Scientific writing Social science writing Literary critics Proses Poems2.5 Zhang Jins classification based on the enhancement of nature of literature3 Brief introduction to history of translation in China中国是个古老的国家，因而其翻译活动历史悠久，内容丰富，宝贵史料甚多，（刘重德，1998：VI）学习一个新学科读了入门书就读

12、它的发展史,而后再读专著和专题研究。我感到历史非常重要，它是联结过去、现在与未来的桥梁。这是一座智慧之桥，认真走过这座桥可以让你明晰社会发展的方向；可以找到指导现实生活战胜困难的智慧和力量。掌握了一个学科的发展史也是这样，可以看清这个学科发展的方向；可以从发展过程中尤其是关键时期吸取教训，以利指导学科的发展。（杨自俭，1998：X）“洪荒造塔语言殊，人此人间要象胥”(马祖毅 读文学翻译十讲竟，赋六绝句自刘重德 1998:177)1. 夏、商：册府无龟·外臣部·朝贡夏后即位，于夷来宾。少康即位三年，方夷来宾。周：左传·襄公十四年戎族酋长子驹支曾： 我诸戎饮食衣服，不

13、与华同，货币不通，语言不通。周礼·秋官象胥，掌蛮夷闽洛貉戎狄之国使，掌传王之言而喻说焉，以和亲之。若以时入宾，则协其礼与其言辞传之。礼记·王制中国、夷、蛮、戎、狄五方这民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲，东方曰寄、南方曰象、西方曰狄 北方曰译。象胥，乃大小行人的属官。周礼“大行人掌大宾之礼及大客之仪，以亲诸侯。” 小行人“掌邦国宾客这礼籍，以待四方之使者。” 在周代，译员又统称“舌人”。秦：汉书·百官·公卿表七上“典客，秦官，掌诸归义蛮夷，有丞。” “典属国，秦官，掌蛮夷降者。”西汉：因秦制，初设典客，“景帝中六年（前114年），更名大行令；武帝太初

14、元年（前104年），又改名大鸿胪；王莽改大鸿胪为典乐（王）汉书·百官·公卿表七上2. 我国的佛经(Buddhist scripture)翻译，从东汉桓帝末年安世高译经开始，魏晋南北朝时有了进一步发展，到唐代臻于极盛，北宋时已经式微，元以后则是尾声。翻译的力量，主要是两部分人：一部分是从西方来中国的僧侣。另一部分是西行求法经的中国僧侣。佛教大肆宣扬人生极苦，涅槃最乐，要人忍辱修行，冀求死后进入“极乐世界”。这种教义与谶纬之学相辅而行。2.1. 安清，字世高，安息国太子。自幼刻意好学，“外国典籍，莫不该贯”。继承王位时“乃深悟苦、空，厌离名器，”148年到达洛阳，“至止未久，即

15、通华言”。他的译本“义理明晰，文字允正，辩而不华，质而不野”，义即说理明白，措辞恰当，不铺张，不粗俗，恰到好处。实译佛经34部,其中有大安般守意经、人本欲生经、道地经等。支娄迦谶（Lokaksema）147年来到洛阳，其译文比较顺畅，但“辞质多胡音”。支谦受业同族人支亮，支亮则受业于支娄迦谶，世称“天下博知，不出三支”。支谦就文体主张而言，主张意译，他是一位意译家。所著法句经序是我国迄今所知谈论翻译理论的第一篇文献，“信达雅”三字均见于序文中。文中批驳维祗难与竺将炎所译法句经“近于质直”，维祗难反驳说“佛言，依其义不用饰，取其法不以严，其传经者当今易晓，勿失厥义，是则为善。”“座中咸曰：老氏称

16、， “信言不美，美言不信” （道德经81章True words are not embellished, the embellished words are not true.）；仲尼亦云“书不尽言，言不尽意”明圣人意深邃无极。今传胡义，实宜经达。”其译经“曲得圣义，辞旨文雅”。由此引起“质朴”与“文丽”之争。Ø 东汉末年至西晋这一阶段佛经翻译的特点：Ø 主要力量为外籍僧人和华籍胡裔僧人。Ø 全凭口授。“传言”/“度语”“笔受”2.2. 东晋偏安江左，北方为十六国。以后南方的宋、齐、梁、陈四朝，又与北魏、北齐、北周对峙，至隋方统一中国。释道安，常山扶柳（河北衡水）

17、人出身士族。364年，南下襄阳遇习凿齿（四海习凿齿弥天释道安）。379年苻坚攻下襄阳，道安被劫入关中。参加译场，指出“不依国主，则法事不立。晚年“闻罗什在西域，思共讲析微言。”提出“五失本”和“三不易”的翻译理论。公元283-285年，苻坚有组织地翻译佛经，主持人为秘书郎赵政。他对译员说：以前译经的人，往往嫌梵文(Sanskrit)抽朴，因趋时尚而追求华丽，这点是我所不取的。”道安主持佛经译场，所监译之经书，“案本而传，不令有损言游字”(translate according to the original without any addition and deduction)。他是直译派的代

18、表人物。鸠摩罗什（Kumarajiva）重意译而不主直译。公元385年，苻坚命吕光率兵灭龟兹，劫罗什到凉州。不料苻坚被杀。罗什提倡译者署名，以负文责。晋宋之间的大诗人谢灵运也是一位佛经翻译家。抚州宝应寺曾保留“谢灵运翻经台”的古迹。唐释元康肇论疏“谢灵运文章秀发，超迈古今。如涅磐元来质朴，本言手把脚踏，得到彼岸，谢公改云：运手动足，截流而度。”梁陈之间，又有著名译家真谛(Paramartha)。他的翻译在尽量采用汉文，少夹梵字译音方面，是下了一番功夫的。隋文帝杨坚出生在尼姑庙，由尼姑智仙抚养成人。他认为“我兴由佛法”，因此“奉佛教极厚”彦琮出身士族，赵郡柏（河南西平）人。著有辨正论，主张译经必

19、须以梵本为依据，“梵语虽讹，比胡有别”，东晋至隋的佛经翻译特点：Ø 私译发展为官译Ø 出现多译本Ø 翻译技巧2.3. 唐代是我国佛教的全盛时期。统治者为加强统治，利用儒、道、佛。佛教首领千方百计巴结统治者。玄奘，姓陈名，洛州缑氏（河南偃师）人。十五岁出家于洛阳。遍访名师,学习了涅槃、摄论、毗昙、成实、俱舍等。感到“所说纷纭，难得定论原请求出国，未获朝廷批准。629年（贞观三年）随饥民离开长安，私自出国，四年后到达北天竺烂陀寺，补为十大“三藏法师”之一。645年（贞元十九年）回到长安，万人空巷。玄奘的翻译主张，“即须求真，又须求俗”。“五不翻:秘密故(What is

20、 mysterious); 多义故(what is multi-semantic); 此无故(what is too alien to be reproduced); 顺古故(what is hereditary); 生善故(what is philanthropic).” 佛经翻译的影响：1） 佛经输入后，印度佛教的唯心主义哲学逐步与中国原有的老庄哲学相结合，南北朝时，唯心主义思潮发展到极盛时期。佛教的传播，又推动了中国道教的创立。2） 从语言方面，通过佛经翻译输入了大量佛教词汇：菩萨、五体投地、解脱、有缘3. 元明清的翻译活动3.1. 回回历书的翻译3.2. “蒙古译语”的编纂和元秘史的翻

21、译3.3. 1580年，意大利人罗明坚（Michael Ruggieri）随葡萄牙人到广州贸易，贿赂两广总督，在肇庆建立一教堂。1583年，将利玛窦（Matteo Ricci）带入中国。利玛窦第一个把四书译成拉丁文。与罗明坚合编葡华字典。译有几何原本徐光启，上海人。先世经商，后家道中落，从事农业和手工业生产。1597年中举，1623年授礼部右侍郎。是明末中国的爱国科学家和科学文化运动的组织者，在介绍西洋自然科学和提高中国科学水平方面作出了卓越的成绩。译有泰西水法清初，康熙帝笃信西学，倡导西译，编纂西籍。著名翻译家有比利时人南怀仁（Berdinard Verbiest）、日尔曼人汤若望(Adam

22、 Schall von Bell)。翻译方式为外国人主译，华士润色；或中外合译，少见国人主译之书籍。3.4. 从鸦片战争到“五四”运动3.4.1. 林则徐，福建侯官人。十三岁“郡试冠军”五十四岁以钦差大臣莅广东。世称“睁人世间看世界第一人。”其主要译员为：袁德辉、亚孟、林阿适、梁进德四洲志（Hugh Murry: Cyclopedia of Geography）。3.4.2. 1860年，在礼部和理藩院不能胜任与外国侵略者交涉的任务的情况下，建立总理各国事务衙门。1880年6月，曾纪泽出使俄国。光绪三十一年，五大臣出洋考察。端方、戴鸿慈由日本转美国，抵欧洲，绕地球一周而返。在加利福利尼亚大学演

23、讲。3.4.3. 马建忠，江苏丹徒人。1894年呈拟设翻译书院议，1896年，提出翻译标准，即所谓的“善译”。意即“译者必须精通原文和译文，比较其异同，掌握语言的规律。译书之前，必须船长了解原文，达到“心悟神解”的地步，然后下笔，忠实地表达原义，“无毫发出入于其间”，而且译文又能够 摹写的神情，仿效原文的语气，这种要求不可谓不高。3.4.4. 严复，福建侯官人，1867年考入船政学堂。他在天演论译例言中说：译事三难，信、达、雅。求其信，已大难矣。顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。此在译者将全文神理，融会于心，则下笔抒词，自然互备。至原文词理本深，难于共喻，则当前后引衬，以显其意。凡此经营，皆

24、以为达，为达即所以为信也。易曰：“修辞立诚”。子曰：“辞达而已。”又曰：“言之无文，行之不远”。三者乃文章正轨，亦译事楷模，故信、达而外，求其尔雅。用近世利俗文字，则求达难，往往仰义就词，毫厘千里。译有Pope的An Essay on Man:All nature is but Art , unknown to thee; 主宰有秘机，斯人特未悟；All chance, Direction, which thou cannot not see; 世事岂偶然，彼苍审措注；All Discord, Harmony not understood; 乍疑乐律乖，庸知各得所；All partial Ev

25、il, universal good; 虽有偏沴灾，终则其利溥；In spite of pride, in erring Seasons spite; 寄语傲慢徒，慎勿轻毁沮；One truth is clear: Whatever is right. 一理今分明，造化原无过。梁启超，广东新会人。翻译东西不多，但在翻译评论和翻译史的研究方面，却做出了重大贡献。编著西学书目表，发表论译书、译印政治小说序等。他说：“故今日而言译书，当首立三义：一曰，择当译之本；二曰，定公译之例；三曰，养能译之才。”提出为救亡图存，必须发展翻译事业，培养翻译人才，制定当译之书，并统一翻译名词术语；提倡翻译政治小说，

26、启发民智；主张用比较通俗的语言去翻译外国著述。林纾的翻译理论：Ø 存其旨而易其辞，本意不亡失。“二人口述神会，笔逐绵绵延延，至于幽雅深沈之中，觉步步有意境可寻。文字至此，真足以赏心而怡神矣”Ø “文心”言文之用心“文之枢纽”Ø “支点”Ø “足音”康有为琴南先生写万木草堂图，题诗见赠，赋谢赠林纾，首句是“译才并世数严林，百部虞出救世心”严复：“可怜一卷茶花女，断尽支那荡子肠。另“而众哗悦，林亦欣欣”。“耳受而手追之，声已笔止，日区区四小时，得文字六千载言。林纾“运笔如风落霓转所难者不加窜点，脱手成稿”。“口述者未毕其词，而纾已书在纸，能限一时许就千言，不

27、窜一字”。林“使中国知识阶级，接近了外国文学，认识不少第一流的作家，使他们从外国文学去学习，以便促进本国文学的发展”。V Assignments: P153-154 Life in a Violin CaseChapter One Part Two Criteria for TranslationI Length of time: two hours II Teaching aims:1 help Ss to understand the criteria for translation;2 help Ss to master the basic qualities a translator

28、should haveIII Main teaching points: traditional criteria for translation; new criteria for translation; requirements for a qualified translatorIV Teaching procedure:1. Traditional and new Criteria1. 1traditional Criteria abroad1) ·The first thing is to give a just representation of the sense o

29、f the original. ·The second thing is, to convey into his version, as much as possible, in a consistency with the genius of the language which he writes, the authors spirit and manner. ·The third and last thing is, to take care, the version have at least, so far the quality of an original p

30、erformance, as to appear natural and easy.(1979 British scholar George Campbell P7)2) ·That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.·That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.·That the tra

31、nslation should have all the ease of original composition.(Alexander F. Tytler P8)1. 2.Criteria in China3)Shi Daoan“案本” 案:nv. record (translate according to the meaning of the original work)4)Yan Fu: 1898 Faithfulness, Fluency, Elegance (diction of words should be of classic beauty and in elegant ta

32、ste)5) Lu Xun: Two aspects must be given consideration to: one is to strive to make the translation easy to understand, the other is to maintain the elegant bearing in the original work. (凡是翻译,必须兼顾两面,一当然力求其易解,一则保存原作的风姿)6)Mao Dun: The aim of literary translation is “translation with artistic creativi

33、ty”. The requirement for literary translation is to convey the artistic mood /(the mood of a literary work) of the original in a language so that readers can be enlightened, moved and affected by the beauty in the same way when reading the translated work as when reading the original.(文学翻译的目标是”艺术创造性

34、翻译”, 对文学翻译的要求是用一种语言把原作的艺术意境传达出来, 使读者读译文时能够象读原作时一样得到启发,感动和美的享受。) 7）Fu Lei: “Spirit Similarity” in stead of “Form Similarity”.“神似”。即传神，传达原作的意蕴。强调“神似”， 不重“形似”。 8) Qian Zhongshu: When turn the literary work from one language to another, the translation should show no trace of being crude nor farfetched,

35、 meanwhile it should maintain the special flavor of the original. This is what is called “acme of perfection”. (文学翻译的最高标准是“化”。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既不能因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹， 又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算入于“化境”。)1.3 New criteraPhidoroph: The same valueNida: Equivalence.Deconstructionist (a method of literary criticism tha

36、t assumes language refers only to itself rather than to an extratextual reality, that asserts multiple conflicting interpretations of a text, and that bases such interpretations on the philosophical, political, or social implications of the use of language in the text rather than on the author's

37、 intention) view: They dont put the importance of the author above everything and disagree that the original work has a definite meaning. They believe that translator is the subject of creation. Denying the authority of the original, this view exaggerates the uncertainty in meaning in the original a

38、nd stresses the freedom of the translator in creation. This randomness may lead translation to chaos and confusion. 1.4 Faithfulness and Fluency Translation is not always art. It demands exact understanding of the original and accurate reflection of the content and essence of it.Eg: Boy, fetch me a

39、pen and a piece of paper. “店小二, 且拿纸笔来,一边伺候。”Wholly convey the message in the original work. Be consistent with the original both in tone and style. Proper punctuation. Correct sentence pattern. Appropriate diction. Natural coordination. Proper disposal of sentence pattern. Eg:(p10)上班族一生往返奔波，行程之长令人惊叹

40、。Commuter: 通勤者,每日往返上班者a a person who commutes (as between a suburb and a city) b a small airline that carries passengers relatively short distances on a regular scheduleTo ones credit: a. in someones favour; in a way that brings honour to someone. b. to/in someones name; belonging to or done by some

41、one值得赞扬，足以使某人增光Milky way: Zhao Jingshen “牛奶路”；北大 柯平“路”See yonder, lo, the galaxye which men clepeth the Milky Weye, For hit is whyt, which men in EnglandDo call Watlyng Streete.（看那边的群星， 人们称之为银河；因为是白色之故，也还有人叫它滑忒林街的。 方重译乔叟文集）O, my love is like a red, red rose; Thats newly sprung in June. Guo Moruo: 吾爱

42、吾爱玫瑰红，花儿刚开六月中.Liu Shoulan: 呵，我的爱人象一朵红红的玫瑰，六月里初露芳菲。2 requirements for a qualified translator2.1 good command of English language. (pay attention to different meanings in language varieties) eg: He lost a cool thousand dollars. You cant be too careful. You dont want to do that. famous brand <name b

43、rand “Im really knocked up!” BE: tired AE: be pregnant. Sedan BE:轿车 saloon AE雅致的大会客厅 爱尔兰剧作家ERVINE在美国家庭做客：“You are very homely.” BE:家常的、朴素的 AE:不漂亮的英贵族FOST在美旅行： “You are looking very fresh.” AE:卤莽、厚颜、无理的。2.2 Good command of Chinese language. eg: names of the characters in Dream in The Red Mansion2.3 W

44、ide range of knowledge eg: The European Empires in Africa have disappeared. “天下真有这样标志的人儿！我今日才算看见了！况且这通身的气派不象老祖宗的外孙女，竟是嫡亲的孙女儿似的。”Shes a beauty, Grannie dear! If I hadnt set eyes on her today, I shouldnt have believed that such a beautiful creature could exist! And everything about her so distingue! S

45、he doesnt take after your side of the family, Grannie. Shes more like a Jia.2.4 Mastery of appropriate translating strategy.2.5 Prudence and sense of responsibility. 傅雷：译事虽近舌人，要以艺术修养为根本：无敏感之心灵， 无热烈之同情， 无适当之鉴赏能力，无相当之社会经验，无充分之常识（即所谓杂学）， 势难彻底理解原作，即或理解，亦未必能深切领悟。对外国语文知识有判断能力critical对本国语文的知识必须有实地经验 practi

46、cal对原文的理解力 linguistic knowledge对本国文字的操纵力 literary capacity经验加上丰富的想象力 experience and imaginationV Assignments:P155-156 Three Peach StonesChapter Two Procedure of TranslationI Length of time: two hours II Teaching aims: help Ss to master the three basic steps in the process of translationIII Main teac

47、hing points: comprehension;representation;proofreadingIV Teaching procedure:Basic Process in TranslatingThe four basic processes in translating consist of 1) analysis of the source text, 2) transfer from source to target language, 3) restructuring in the target language, and 4) testing of the transl

48、ated text with persons who represent the intended audience.Relation between comprehension and representationComprehension: prerequisite. Representation: result. It is very hard to draw a demarcation line between the two stages because translators often take representation into consideration while co

49、mprehending and make further comprehension while representing. The two stages interact and can improve each other. 1 comprehension *Read the article through, so as to get a general idea of the whole piece *Try to know the background knowledge as much as possible. * Look up new words and phrases in d

50、ictionaries. *Make a clear grammatical analysis of each sentence, long sentences in particular. 1) analysis of languagea. meaning of words: dictionary meaning; contextual meaning; associative meaning; historic meaning; idiomatic meaning.*polysemy eg: Seeing China and India in conflict, the warmonger

51、s(a person who urges war or who tries to get a war started) were rubbing their hands. 战争贩子兴高采烈He finds his son getting out of hand.难于管教She came out of court with clean hands.宣告无罪His father is a powerful man-has long hands-reaches as for as he can.势力很大She is a great hand at thinking up of new ways.很能

52、想出办法的人The crowed gave the winners a big hand.大声喝彩He has never read a book in his life and still writes a schoolboy hand.能写字He had no hand in the matter.与此毫无关系Why, I have heard it on all hands.怎么，我听大家都这样说。*negative and positive meanings in a certain context eg: direction activity result envy He was a

53、 man of integrity, but unfortunately he had a certain reputation. I believe the reputation was not deserved. *slang and special usage and language varietiesdude(老兄，老哥) guy：Hey,dude, look at that girl.chick(女孩)叫女孩的常用词，语气中确实有轻佻、不尊重的倾向。例子：Look at that chick at the door.(看门口的那个女孩)pissed off (生气，不高兴) pis

54、s off在字典中则是“滚开，滚蛋”的意思，实际上此词是表示“生气，不高兴”的意思，与angry同意。例子：Man，is that guy pissed of ？(哎呀，那家伙真的生气了)Hey，Give me five(嗨，好啊！) Hey，dude！ Give me five！(嗨，老兄，好啊！)freak out(大发脾气) freak本义是“奇异的，反常的”的意思，但freak out是“大发脾气”的意思，out也可以省略，这个词在美语中很常见，老式说法是be very upset。 例子：Hes gonna freak (他快要发脾气了)Get out of here(别开玩笑了，别

55、骗人了) (Man)You look very beautiful(你很漂亮) (Girl)Get out of here.(别骗了) Hello(有没有搞错) 有没有搞错Hello,any body home，well be late！ (有没有搞错, 我们要迟到了)green(新手，没有经)Shes really green，she looks nervous.(她是新手，看起来很紧张)Have a crush on someone fallin love with .She thinks she has a crush on John.(她认为她爱上约翰了)b. grammatical

56、structurec. rhetoric figure of speech2) analysis of logical relationship eg:p18 (4)eg: A I could not recollect his name to save my life. （怎么也想不起） B These books have long been out of print. You cant get them for love or money.（无论如何） C He is standing on his head. D Look at the copper watching. 3) anal

57、ysis of context2 representation1. starting point/focus of attention in representation2. mode of translation: Sts+Bts+Tts3. Mutual transformation between content and form a. contentform b. formcontent 3proofreading V Assignments: P157 When the Moon Follows MeChapter Three Translation MethodsI Length

58、of time: two hours II Teaching aims: familiarize Ss with the essential translating strategiesIII Main teaching points: literal translation and free translation; Foreignizing method and domesticating methodIV Teaching procedure:3.1 Literal translation & Free translation3.1.1literal translation Employing close (differe