法国国民教育制度历史探源

1、第 PAGE35 页 共 NUMPAGES35 页法国国民教育制度历史探法国国民教育制度的历史探 法国国民教育制度的历史探法国国民教育制度确立于19世纪初期，这也正是西欧从传统社会向现代社会的转型时期，众多的教育家、思想家、政治家、哲学家、经济学家在不同领域都留下了丰富的教育思想，成为以后各种教育理念的头。认真梳理这些珍贵资料，并加以批判式的继承，以期为我国的教育现代化建立、教育改革提供有益的借鉴。相关研究为清楚界定“国民教育”概念，下面通过比照概念之间的差异来进展归纳：其一，民众教育也就是群众教育，以进步民众的社会福利，维护国家的政治利益为目的，发端时间为宗教改革和文艺复兴运动时期，使用母语

2、在人民群众中开展初等教育，这一概念的重点在于强调教育目的。其二，普及教育指国家对学龄儿童普遍施行一定程度的根底教育，这一过程不区分儿童的种族、肤色、宗教信仰、性别和才能，这一概念的重点在于强调教育的手段。其三，国民教育本质就是一种民众教育，同时具有独特的民族特色和政治色彩，这一概念的重点在于强调教育的对象，即民族国家中的全体人民，表达了“受教育权”的政治意义。其四，国家教育那么包含“教育控制权”的政治意义，是相对于非国家机构掌握教育权而言，这一概念的重点在于强调国家的教育权利意志。由此可以进展如下归纳：国民教育就是在国家权利机构的统一管理下，通过普及教育的本文由论文联盟搜集整理形式施行的民众教

3、育。国外关于国民教育理论的研究主要集中在西方教育史领域，主要代表人物有库柏莱、蕾丝纳、布鲁巴赫、鲍温、格林等人。库柏莱在教育史一书中把教育看成是文明的一个重要组成局部，从文明史的角度来考察教育在文明开展中所发挥的作用。书中有两个重要观点：一是民众教育的开端时间，滥觞于宗教改革以及文艺复兴，一改高于圣经的场面，把圣经的地位抬高到之上，由此群众承受初等教育就有据可循了，进而使得初等学校开场以母语进展教学；二是19世纪上半叶，国家控制教育的观念兴盛起来，在世界各地开展了国家控制和建立学校的运动。蕾柏丝在1789年以来的民族和教育一书中从政治的角度，归纳了推动教育开展的三个要素：民族、民主和工业革命。

4、布鲁巴赫在教育问题史一书中对“民族与教育”进展了阐述，以“民族”来分析p 国民教育制度确实立和开展成为趋势。鲍温在西方教育史第三卷从思想意识角度分析p 了欧美国家国民教育产生的根。国内有关国民教育方面的文献不甚丰富，具有代表性的有：朱旭东的18世纪中期至19世纪前期欧美国民教育理论与理论的历史研究，主要探究了教育家孟德斯鸠、夏尔维修、卢梭、拉夏洛泰等人的代表作和理论，把人、民族、国家三要素作为研究根底，勾勒出教育同人、民族、国家之间的联络，提醒了国民教育对国家的生死存亡、繁荣和开展所具有的重大意义。第一章便以大篇幅阐述了法国国民教育理论，并将其称为“国民教育的思想库”。法国国民教育体系确实立推

5、动了法国民族国家的形成，使法国走上教育现代化的道路，具有里程碑式的意义。同时，西方各国的思想家受此启发和影响，借鉴形成了符合本国国情的国民教育理论。瑞士裴斯塔洛齐的自然教育理论受益于卢梭的思想，英国欧文的性格形成理论继承了孟德斯鸠和爱尔维修的理论，华盛顿建立“国立大学”的尝试是对狄德罗的追随。因此，法国国民教育思想推动了西方国民教育制度确实立和开展，是西方国民教育思想的头，具有研究价值。法国的国民教育社会转型不仅发生在经济领域，也发生在非经济领域如教育、政治等方面。现代化过程是传统社会向现代社会的转化，教育普及化是其中的一项重要特征。18世纪初，法国学校大都受到天主的控制。在初等教育方面，基督

6、教学校兄弟会在向贫穷和不幸的孩子提供慈善教育，一些修女会向女孩提供初等教育。耶稣会和奥拉托利会修道士控制着中等教育。18世纪中期，百科全书编纂者开场动摇政府对教育体系的绝对控制。他们信奉新的人道民主思想，并坚持认为教育应该是全面的、免费的、强迫的、非宗教的。这种思想此后成为法国大革命不可或缺的一局部。随着革命者创始的更加民主的社会，教育逐渐被认为是实现和维持新社会的一种工具。1789年，由三级议会起草的诸多建议要求减少公共教育的古典课程，强调现代的和理论的课程。在国民会议期间，米拉波和塔列朗为世俗教育起草了方案，目的在于培养爱国人才而非宗教人才。孔多塞为世俗学校制订了一个完好的国家体系，规定为

7、所有的孩子提供免费的、强迫的、普及的平等教育时机。法兰西共和国建立之后，国家议会进展了许多努力，建立了一个国家管理的教育体系，并通过没收财产和取缔教学团体来摧毁学校。1794年的拉卡纳尔法规定，每所初等学校应包容一千人，以法语来讲授读、写、算和自然地理知识。通过讲授爱国歌曲、爱国故事，讲解人权宣言来灌输共和思想。1795年的法律规定，数以千计的社区都应该建立教授读写算的初等和中等学校，对1218岁的孩子讲授古典科目和现代科目。法国国民教育制度确立的直接因素政治层面：法国大革命。18世纪初，法国是欧洲强国，但在路易十六统治期间逐渐失去了在欧洲的统治地位。经济危机是由来已久的不满情绪的催化剂，并且

8、是引发大革命的重要的直接因素。在18世纪80年代，农业已经显露出危机的迹象，小麦价格不振，另一方面，葡萄消费过剩带来的严重危机造成行情急剧下跌，与此同时，178_年的英法商约使法国工业受到竞争的威胁。1788年，农业出现灾难性歉收，多年的价格停滞之后突然爆发了饥荒，城市和农村都出现了骚动。1789年4月，巴黎的圣安托万区爆发了一场反对工场主的骚乱。从这一刻起，社会战争进一步放大了，而最关键的因素是赤字。国内假设干小派别使国家分裂；殖民地经济灾难爆发导致政府开支增加、赋税加重、国内社会不平等现象持续，最终导致了大革命的爆发。路易十六被迫召开了三级会议，第三等级宣布成立国民议会，废除封建特权，起草

9、了1791年宪法。宪法确立了君主立宪制，废除长子继承制，解放农奴，没收的土地，并通过人民选举将神职人员转变为国家官员，制止教堂的宗教教育。法国大革命完毕了君主专制统治，传播了自由民主平等的思想。1789年通过的人权与公民权宣言具有里程碑式的意义，强调了自由，表达了“人们生来是而且始终是自由平等的”的理念。人权，特别是财产权，除经正当法律程序外，是神圣不可进犯的。法国大革命引发了民主思潮，尽管受到国王、复辟分子、反动派的阻挠，但是自由、平等、博爱的力量仍非常强大。经济层面：工业革命。工业革命开场于18世纪60年代，发于英格兰中部地区，其影响直接涉及到法国，使法国深受影响，并长期保持了在欧洲的地位

10、。社会消费力的快速开展为教育的开展提供了坚实的土壤。工业革命对科学技术的进步提出了更高的需求，这就要求劳动者进步素质，教育是满足这一条件的最直接有力的手段。德塞利尼曾说过：“机械的改良只有依靠有学识的工人才有实在的可能性。”工业革命的开展使社会构造发生了变化，从事家庭手工业以及小农场主的数量锐减，随之而来的贫民人数激增，出现了一系列社会、经济、政治问题，教育被认为是有效医治社会问题的良药。安托万普罗斯特的著作法国教育史引起了人们对学校体制与经济、社会事实之间的关系问题的亲密关注。工业化以科学为先导，使人们实在感受着文化科学的魅力，在社会上涌现出一股崇尚知识的热潮。思想层面：启蒙运动。基督和封建

11、贵族在欧洲统治了上千年，工商业也未充分开展，17世纪时法国处在路易十四统治之下，当时正是封建贵族和高级僧侣结合专制统治的鼎盛时期。文化和教育被天主教的耶稣会僧侣所控制，一般民众那么处于愚昧状态。启蒙运动在这一背景下产生并持续了近一个世纪，以法国为中心，以法语为共享语言，法国成为西欧各国启蒙运动的典范，为法国大革命作了充分的思想准备。当时进步的思想家、教育家宣扬自由、平等和民主，反对愚昧，提倡普及文化教育，其中以孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰、卢梭等人为先锋。孟德斯鸠在论法的精神第四章阐述了教育问题，把教育置于与政体的关联当中，主要阐述教育与政治的关系。他认为共和政体、君主政体以及专制政体的原那么各有不同，分

12、别侧重品德、荣誉和恐惧，与之相应的教育也应有不同的目的。他鞭挞专制政体教育，赞扬君主政体教育，向往共和政体教育。在近代思想家中，孟德斯鸠第一次明确指出了教育与国家的关系，认为教育是国家不可无视的重大事业。卢梭比孟德斯鸠更激进，根据他的“社会契约”，所有公民的意愿才是国家至高无上的权利。天赋权利不仅限于生命的权利、自由的权利和拥有财产的权利，而且还包括所有人对幸福和福利的追求。由于政府的目的是进步群众福利，因此政府必须代表所有公民的意愿，而不仅仅是代表财产所有人的意愿。法国国民教育制度确立的深层因素经济层面：劳动消费率。西欧的乡村早在原始积累前就已经得到了充分的开展，可以产生出资本积累的绝不是个

13、体农民的普遍贫困，而是个体农民的相对富足。个体农民在消费、消费、剩余领域的积累状况，也就是消费者的劳动消费率构成了中世纪农业社会开展的经济根底。西欧资本正是基于原始积累的成功，而这一成功的标志那么是农业劳动消费率与储蓄率成正比。政治层面：法律保障。社会财产积累依赖于法律保障机制，保障机制分狭义和广义两个层面：前者指个人财富及社会财富积累的构造性保障，后者指建立在个人权利根底上的法律政治制度的逐步开展和完善。这一机制至关重要，其中蕴含着西欧社会最深层、最具典型的特质。中世纪晚期和近代早期西欧劳动消费率增长，与法律政治制度之间存在着深入的内在联络。西欧中世纪的法律是在习惯法的根底上改造的，其特点在

14、于不是自上而下的规定，而是自下而上的传播。农奴在一定程度上受到法律的保护，需要缴纳的地租和赋役量都有着严格的规定，农奴虽然仍旧受到剥削和压迫，但他们已经在法律的范围获得一定的权利。正因为如此，即便农奴制度对农奴来说相对残酷，但农奴逐渐有了个人财产的积累，这一做法从根本上削弱了中世纪制度的统治根底。个人权利保障了个体财产和社会财富的积累和增长。个体权利以及在此根底上形成的法律政治制度，与主体权利观念的关系极其亲密。主体权利概念从12世纪起逐渐成型，交融了日耳曼祖先的马尔抑制度、罗马法和基督教思想，初步形成了近代的西方文明。思想层面：人文。文艺复兴开宗教改革、启蒙运动等一系列伟大思想解放运动之先河

15、。人文狭义上是对希腊罗马思想文化的崇尚，强调人的现实生活意义，广义指与神学相对的人文学术。人道以及个人是人文思想体系的核心。人文认为人生而平等，应按才能和知识分贵贱，人天生具有追求个人现世幸福的欲望，现世幸福包括现世的利益和荣誉，追求智慧、知识和个人才能的多方面开展，是人的本性之一。于是中世纪晚期的西欧出现了一股“教育热”。人文教育一改中世纪时期宗教控制教育的场面，开启了国家控制教育的先河。人文教育已经涵盖了新时期教育的元素，如充分尊重个人自由，反对禁欲，以人的天性为出发点从而进展教育，相信人的价值和力量，开启了近代教育。继文艺复兴之后产生了两大运动：人文和宗教改革，而人文又是宗教改革的先导。

16、基督教新教的传播，鼓励人们直接阅读圣经，主张个人与上帝直接对话，促进了文化的普及。胡格诺教派用法语传教，更便于本国人承受，有利于民族精神的形成。夏尔维修肯定人人的智力平等，每个人都有潜在的可完善性，平庸之辈和和获得最高文化成就者之间的差异归因于教育。主体权利。主体权利本质是一种身份权利或等级权利，它有两层含义，一是中世纪的个人权利，二是某个等级或团体的集体权利，是个体与社会共同开展，物质与精神双向互动的结果。主体权利的观念浸透了西欧社会的每一寸肌肤。它为社会底层做出抵抗提供了可能，使其在农奴制最残酷的社会中，也能实现一定程度的对抗，所以西方社会几乎没有出现像东方一样的专制政体。现代权利脱胎于原

17、始权利的母体，是原始权利不断转化、开展的结果。我们耳熟能详的“人性解放”、“个性自由”、“人权宣言”等概念，都充分表达着主体权利的思想；在历史开展中具有里程碑意义的大事件：文艺复兴、宗教改革、资产阶级革命、启蒙运动、工业革命等，更是在主体权利的意识推动下走向成功的。假如没有主体权利的理念，这些观点的提出、里程碑事件的发生，可能就变得不确定了。只有出现真正独立、自由的个体，才会产生民族国家，产生国民教育的思想。As can be seen, bus number of deaths and injuries that occurred was rail transit (RRT) of 1.7

18、times, number of motor vehicle deaths and injuries is 1.9 times.United States trafficCounty economic work conference leadership speech:The main task of the twenty-si_ session of the si_ plenary meeting of the county the county economic work conference this time, by the partyapos;s eighteen and eight

19、een Third Plenary Session of the spirit as a guide, carry out and implement the central and provincial economic work conference on rural work conference and the three session of the seven plenary session of the party to e_pand the spirit of the meeting, the total summary of last year the work, analy

20、sis of the current situation, the deployment of this work, further strengthening the development of consensus, to mobilize the whole county county, deepening reform and innovation, to work against poverty, accelerate the transformation of leapfrog, promote scientific development, struggling to write

21、 a new harmonious beautiful mountains and show a prosperous civilization to build a new building.The following chapter _, according to the county Discussion of the views of the Standing mittee, I focus on four aspects of the problem:_years, the county to seriously implement the central decision-maki

22、ng arrangements and real, in accordance with the “high position, as a typical tree, catch catch up with speed for a breakthrough, five in one overall grasp to raise human resources to promote overall leap”, firmly grasp for the project, investment, industry, structural adjustment, Emegumi Mio, promo

23、te harmony, agency the county economy presents the social development to catch up, are balanced development, promote the overall, a good momentum of sustained rise.According to Article 11 priority, economic construction full speed.Focusing on the development of this priority service, set up the mark

24、et idea is constantly refined, can the implementation of major projects, efforts to e_pand the investment, vigorously develop the non-public economy, to ensure the continuous healthy and rapid development of the county economy, investment in fi_ed assets investment, industrial added value.Fiscal ine

25、, per capita ine of farmers and other major economic indicators maintained two digit growth.According to the “3341” project engineering, proved reserves pre project 4744, _4, for central heating in the west, the South Cave Temple landscape Avenue, oil oil road lifting column ten key counties Project

26、 smoothly, investment projects to promote the transformation of the pull, supporting further highlights the role; to promote in Honghe oilfield Mton construction, careful implementation of natural fiber cotton industry a reconstruction and e_pansion of the two phase, Huarun home ceramics, ceramics,

27、Zhengda feed class three, class 44 full load keep the production, operation and sales booming, the cotton industry has bee the city after the coal transport and one employment value-added industry; _iping railway through infiltration through operations, Jing Road opened to traffic vehicles, further

28、highlights the _traffic hub; Longyuan red fruit trade pany successfully introduced, for the first time now _fruit Direct e_port; is a production pany 300 thousand tons of feed production line, Yurun Group _broiler breeding district built colonization production, forming a “” pany + farmers “model of

29、 development, in promoting the transition to farming aquaculture has taken a solid pace; vegetable industry focus management promotion and marketing docking.Rui Jing River area, vegetable mould scale continues to e_pand, Wang Rui Feng, and other heavy key towns” village village layout, sudden breakt

30、hrough “strong momentum; Yudu Kang family, Wang twenty shop center village construction into the industry, ecological, cultural, tourism and other factors, the tour group construction munity management, Set a benchmark for the new rural construction, the construction of new rural county in the two e

31、nd of the pilot beam to keep the innovation and enhance the momentum.To accelerate the reform and innovation, political construction steadily.The reform and innovation as the core of the heart, coagulation unite together in political construction, to create a good environment for the countyapos;s de

32、velopment.Constantly improve the working mechanism, support peopleapos;s congresses, governments, CPPCC Standing mittee work, to further improve and perfect the sub division of responsibility, the full implementation of the county led the pack leader catch the township, contact departments, corporat

33、e responsibility system; established a prehensive assessment of the five one ”approach, the implementation of Rural Township, Department of secretary of the party organization work the honesty and democratic appraisal system, encourage encourage creative work for the Department of Township, village

34、cadres, and constantly improve the performance assessing and Industry Development Linked incentive mechanism, the formation of winds are strong enough, good momentum and seek mon development; munication mechanism and establishment of provinces and cities, “double” units, actively seek the support of

35、 docking project, the implementation of funds, with the country, the province, has injected new impetus to realize synchronous well-off.To strengthen the grassroots base, take the two push an election “and” direct push elections “, plete the general village” two mittees “, earnestly carry out the de

36、velopment of village level financial clean-up, to fully implement the party, government and village affairs, e_pand the peopleapos;s right to know, participation and supervision rights; in-depth implementation of the four on two open” the work of law, and constantly improve the base By election proc

37、edure, public consultation and accountability mechanism, promote the masses in industry development, munity governance, realize self management, public affairs and public welfare undertakings in the development of self service.To promote the reform of key areas of heavy water, and prehensively promo

38、te the city prehensive law enforcement, business, food and drug supervision system reform, reasonable the adjustment of discipline discipline inspection and supervision, procuratorate organs, quality inspection departments, strengthen the integration of industry and merce, service functions, improve

39、 administrative efficiency; further promote reform into the right system of rural financial reform and development of collective forest, rural development and further enhance the vitality.Focus on financial integration and development of cultural construction, accelerate the pace of fast.Seize the p

40、rovinceapos;s heritage of Chinese civilization, Chuang Chuang District building, Dayun Temple unearthed cultural relics and Buddhist relics “Millennium” such as opportunity, efforts to promote cultural tourism integration development.Efforts to enhance the level of planning, and employ high quality

41、planning and design units, the county cultural tourism development planning and the overall planning of the cloud temple, reported the provincial culture to enhance the coordination of regulation to promote the leading group approved in the province, the city within the province, forming a “west of

42、Dunhuang, East _” consensus, for my county with rich historical and cultural resources to promote the economic structure turn around, The development of the way to find a starting point.And constantly improve the implementation of the system of scenic spots, water conservation and construction of Ti

43、an e_hibition hall construction, built the South Cave Temple before a square and landscape Avenue, meticulously made jade Kang Jia Wang Cun, twenty shop ecological tourism demonstration village, Wu Huan Martyrs Memorial Hall preparatory work disabilities progress smoothly and, to further improve the

44、 system of tourism attractions.Strengthen the protection of cultural relics, the temple unearthed cultural relics protection such as the focus, to carry out a full survey of cultural relics, registration, maintenance and other work, find out the county cultural relics protection and the status quo.C

45、ontinue to strengthen publicity and promotion, in order to Buddha seselj “Millennium now ”As an opportunity to successfully held the inauguration cum Dayun Temple Buddha relic Lian in deep mining method; mother of Queen Mother of the west culture, held the fifth cross strait Coast West Queen female

46、culture seminar by Chinese intangible cultural heritage center initiative, the West Queenapos;s birthday was established as the Chinese motherapos;s day, I determine the county as the“ international mother queen mother of the west culture the research base in Beijing; the success of the Gansu Buddhi

47、st Culture Research Seminar _, established Chinese and international Fobao Holy Buddha relic research center position, CCTV and Macao and so on a number of media for the depth, resulting in e_tensive influence at home and abroad, visibility and influence _culture brand The sound is further improved.

48、Efforts to improve the peopleapos;s livelihood and social construction fruitful.Adhere to the people-oriented, pay more attention to social construction, efforts to improve the peopleapos;s livelihood security barrier level.Careful measures do Huimin practical, ”double“, agricultural loans, and pove

49、rty alleviation development province in the practical handling of solid and effective, especially Jing Hebei road construction, the implementation of the county the 521 thread road reconstruction project, to solve the problems of the masses along the way group years of difficulties and problems, to

50、speed up the development of the country along along conditions.Promote the overall development of social undertakings, adhere to the priority of education development, construction pletion of recruit students _4, 13 kindergartens e_pansion and e_pansion is pleted and put into use, 45 schools of food

51、 Hall fully pleted, a substantial increase in the number of on-line books over the entrance general; all the full implementation of the rural health service ”ten full coverage“, the county food and drug supervision system for continuous improvement; regarded attaches great importance to the work of

52、family planning, the national population and family planning interests to guide policy system construction demonstration county through the provincial inspection; multi e_pansion the coverage of social security, technology, radio and television undertakings developed.Continue to deepen the ”double“

53、action, in accordance with the ”village is linked industry, household ine is linked to help“ ideas, deepening the ”not rich first help, together with the well-off society“ theme of practical activities, to build a market wide wide Base platform, connection with the farmers, new farmersapos; professi

54、onal cooperative economic organization with 121, capital cooperatives 10, first rich guide staff and poverty benefit object to establish the node mechanism, for rich people to fulfill their social responsibilities, to realize their own value to build a platform for poor farmers to get rich e_tension

55、 e_pand the ways find the starting point, for all levels of cadres to carry out work.To strengthen social governance, to construct the scientific governance pattern of society as the direction, to the township level and village level social service munity management as the focus, product actively ad

56、apt to the economic structure, organizational form, the trend of diversified values Tie, and carry out the management of rural ”three movement“, ”five independent, three cooperation“ for action and ”a study of three visits three“ the main theme of practical activities, promoting social prehensive go

57、vernance, in-depth investigation and handling of the spear of contradictions and disputes, to crack down on illegal crime, the social stability and development to optimize the environment.Adhere to the prehensive bination of governance, improve the level of ecological civilization.Ecological constru

58、ction mode of innovation, to continue to e_pand the ecological effect, and strive to build the ecological brand, the construction of ecological civilization step pace significantly accelerated.Forestry development efforts of the increase, to control the key areas of green and heavy key River Basin a

59、s the focus, carefully implement the whole basin destroy, surface mountain ecological restoration, forest road facilities and villages Tuen green, plete ecological afforestation, mu, ecological barrier function is growing.The environment restoration by Ti Tianjian to accelerate the pace of construct

60、ion, small watershed management, the governance and the construction of high standard basic farmland for heavy emphasis, additional land acres, national water Soil conservation ecological civilization County created by the provincial approval; in energy development and pollution of heavy industrial