增值税作为一种新的收入资源的中英文翻译

1、- -Value-AddedTaxasaNewRevenueSourceJamesM.BickleyVerticalEquityTheverticalequityofataxconcernsthetaxtreatmentofhouseholdswithdifferentabilities-to-pay.Verticalequitymaybeaffectedbythemeasureofability-to-payandthetaxperiod.Someeconomistsarguethatpersonalconsumptionisthebestmeasureofability-to-paybec

2、auseconsumptionistheactualtakingofscarceresourcesfromtheeconomicsystem.Themostcommonmeasureofability-to-payisstillincome.Proponentsofincomeasameasureofability-to-payarguethatsavingyieldsutilitybyprovidinghouseholdswithgreatereconomicsecurity.Taxincidenceusuallyismeasuredbyusingaone-yearperiod.Dataon

3、consumptionandincomearereadilyavailableinone-yearincrementsandtheconceptofaone-yearperiodiseasilyunderstood.Butsometaxeconomistsbelievetaxincidenceismoreaccuratelydeterminedbymeasuringconsumptionandincomeoverahouseholdslifetime.Ifconsumptionisusedasameasureofability-to-pay,asingle-rateVATwithabroadb

4、asewouldbeapproximatelyproportionalregardlessofthetimeperiod.Inotherwords,thepercentageofconsumptionpaidinVATbyhouseholdswouldbeapproximatelyconstantasthelevelofhouseholdconsumptionrises.Ifdisposableincomeoveraone-yearperiodisthemeasureofability-to-paythenaVATwouldbeviewedasextremelyregressive;thati

5、s,thepercentageofdisposableincomepaidinVATwoulddecreaserapidlyasdisposableincomeincreases.Inmostdiscussionsoftaxpolicy,bothaone-yearperiodandannualdisposableincome(orsomeotherannualincomemeasure)areused;consequently,theVATisviewedasbeingextremelyregressive.Ifdisposableincomeoveralifetimeisthemeasure

6、ofability-to-pay,aVATwouldbemildlyregressive.Forlowerandmiddleincomehouseholds,itappearsthatnearlyallsavingsareeventuallyconsumed.Thus,itmaybethatforthevastmajorityofhouseholds,lifetimeconsumptionandlifetimeincomeareapproximatelyequal.Highincomehouseholdstendtohavenetsavingsovertheirlifetimes;conseq

7、uently,theywouldpayalowerproportionoftheirdisposableincomesinVATthanlowerincomegroups.SomesupportersofprogressivetaxationopposetheVATprimarilybecausetheybelievethatitisregressive.SomeofthesecriticsareespeciallyconcernedabouttheabsoluteburdenofaVATonlowincomehouseholds.Thedegreeofregressivity,however

8、,canbereducedbygovernmentpolicy.Threeoften-mentionedpoliciesareexclusionsandmultiplerates,incometaxcredits,andearmarkingofsomerevenuesforincreasedsocialspending(includingindexedtransferpayments).NeutralityFromaneconomicperspective,thegreaterasourceofrevenuesneutrality,themoreitisgenerallypreferred;t

9、hatis,thelessitaffectseconomicdecisions.Conceptually,aVATonallconsumptionexpenditureswithasingleratethatisconstantovertimewouldberelativelyneutralcomparedtoothermajorrevenuesources.Forhouseholds,twooutofthreemajordecisionswouldnotbealteredbythishypotheticalVAT.First,thisVATwouldnotalterchoicesamongg

10、oodsbecauseallgoodswouldbetaxedatthesamerate.Thus,relativepriceswouldnotchange.Second,aVATwouldnotaffectthesaving-consumptiondecisionbecausesavingwouldonlybetaxedonce;thatis,whensavingsarespentonconsumption.Butthethirddecision,ahouseholdswork-leisuredecision,wouldbeaffectedbyaVAT.Leisurewouldnotbeta

11、xed,butthereturnsfromworkwouldbetaxedwhenspentongoods.(Incontrast,theincometaxaffectsboththesaving-consumptiondecisionandthework-leisuredecision.)Forafirm,theVATwouldnotaffectdecisionsconcerningmethodoffinancing(debtorequity),choiceamonginputs(unlesssomesuppliersareexemptorzero-rated),typeofbusiness

12、organization(corporation,partnership,orsoleproprietorship),andgoodstoproduce.Othertypesoftaxesmayaffectoneormoreofthesetypesofdecisions.ButthisconceptuallypureformofaVATisnotfeasible.AVATcannotbeleviedonallconsumergoods;consequently,pricesoftaxedgoodswillriserelativetountaxedgoods.Thischangeinrelati

13、vepriceswouldaffectconsumersdecisionsaboutwhichgoodstopurchase,and,consequently,firmsdecisionsaboutwhichgoodstoproduce.Furthermore,mostnationswithVATshavemorethanonerate.MultipleVATratesalterrelativepricesoftaxedgoods.Finally,VATratesinmostnationshavetendedtoriseovertime.Despitethesedeviationsfromap

14、ureformofVAT,abroad-basedVATisrelativelyneutral.Thisneutralityisgreaterifthetaxrateisrelativelylow,ascouldbethecaseforaVATtoreducetheU.S.deficit.InflationAVATinitiallywouldcauseaone-timeincreaseinthepriceleveliftheFederalReservehadanexpansionarymonetarypolicytooffsetthecontractionaryeffectsofthetax.

15、orexample,a4%VATon75%ofconsumeroutlaysmightcauseanestimatedincreaseinconsumerpricesofapproximately3%.AVATwouldhavesomesecondarypriceeffects.Somegoodswouldriseinpricebecausetheirfactorsofproduction,especiallylabor,arelinkedtopriceindexes.Yet,iftheFederalReservedisregardedthesesecondarypriceincreasesi

16、nformulatingmonetarypolicy,thesesecondarypriceincreaseswouldtendtobeoffsetbypricereductionsinothersectorsoftheeconomy.Insummary,aVATwouldprobablycauseaone-timeincreaseinthepricelevelbutnotaffecttherateofinflationi.e.,increasedpricesinthefuture.Balance-of-TradeWithflexibleexchangerates,thesupplyandde

17、mandfordifferentcurrenciesdeterminetheirrelativevalue.Ifacountryhasadeficitinitsbalance-of-trade,thisdeficitmustfinancedbyanetimportationofforeigncapital.Butnetcapitalinflowscannotcontinueindefinitely.Thus,overtime,thiscountryscurrencywilltendtodeclineinvaluerelativetothecurrenciesofothernations.Con

18、sequently,thiscountrysbalance-of-tradedeficitwilleventuallydeclineasitsexportsriseandimportsfall.Hence,economictheoryindicatedthataVAToffersnoadvantageoverothermajortaxesinreducingadeficitinthebalance-of-trade.NationalSavingIfaVATisleviedtoreplacepartofincometaxrevenue,whatwouldbetheeffectontheperso

19、nalsavingrate.AVATtaxessavingswhentheyarespentonconsumption,allowingsavingstocompoundatapre-taxrate.Butanincometaxisleviedonallincomeatthetimeitisearned,regardlessofwhethertheincomeisconsumedorsaved.Theincometaxisalsoleviedontheearningsfromincomesaved.Consequently,someproponentsoftheVAThavearguedtha

20、tchoosingaVATratherthananincometaxtoraiserevenuewouldincreasethereturnfromsaving,and,consequently,raisethesavingsrate.Therateofreturnonsavings,however,hasneverbeenshowntohaveasignificanteffectonthesavingsratebecauseoftwoconflictingeffects.First,eachdollarsavedtodayresultsinthepossibilityofahigheramo

21、untofconsumptioninthefuture.Thisrelativeincreaseinthereturnfromsavingcausesahouseholdtowanttosubstitutesavingforconsumptionoutofcurrentincome(substitutioneffect).Butahigherrateofreturnonsavingsraisesahouseholdsincome;consequently,thehouseholdhastosavelesstoaccumulatesometargetamountofsavingsinthefut

22、ure(incomeeffect).Thus,thisincomeeffectencourageshouseholdstohavehighercurrentconsumptionandlowercurrentsaving.Insummary,thereisnoconclusiveevidencethataVATwouldincreasetherateofnationalsavingmorethananothertypeofmajortaxincrease.中文译文增值税作为一种新的收入资源由比克利詹姆斯（一）纵向公平一种税的纵向公平涉及不同的能力家庭与薪酬的税务处理问题。纵向公平可能受到的支付

23、能力和税期的措施。一些经济学家认为个人消费是支付能力的最佳措施，这是因为消费从经济系统的稀缺资源的实际获得。大多数普通尺寸能力仍然是支付的收入。作为一种措施的能力支付收入的支持者辩称节约产量的家庭提供更大的经济安全的实用程序。税收的归宿通常是通过使用为期一年来衡量。对消费与收入的数据可方便地以一年为增量，为期一年的概念很容易理解。但一些税经济学家认为，测量一个家庭的生命周期内的消费与收入更能准确地确定税收的归宿。如果消费用作支付能力，单率增值税与广泛的基础无任何时间段的关系。换句话说，在增值税支付的家庭消费的百分比都是依据家庭消费水平上升。如果为期一年的可支配收入是支付能力，然后增值税将被视为

24、回归点；随着可支配收入的增加，增值税占可支配收入的百分比会迅速下降。大多数的税收政策者的讨论，其可用于每年可支配收入（或一些其他每年的收入）；即增值税被视为是极其回归。如果在生命周期内的可支配收入具有支付能力，增值税将轻度回归。从低等和中等收入家庭来看，几乎所有的积蓄都是最终消费。因此，它可能使绝大多数家庭的饮用消费与终身收入大致相等。高收入家庭往往会节省了他们的寿命；因此，他们支付的增值税占可支配收入的比例将比低收入群体低。一些支持累进税的人反对增值税，主要是因为他们认为这是倒退行为。这些批评者有些特别关注绝对增值税对低收入家庭的负担。但是，这样可以减少政府的政策。三个经常提到的政策是排除和

25、多个费率，收入税收抵免，并指定用途的一些收入增加社会支出（包括索引的转移支付）。（二）中立从经济的角度看，更多的收入保持中立，在于有一般优先考虑；也就是说，少影响经济决策。从概念上讲，随着时间的推移，相比其他的主要收入来源，有恒定的税率的增值税的所占消费支出情况将相对中性。假设这种家庭增值税有三个重大的决定不会改变。第一，此增值税不会改变货物之间的选择，因为所有的货物将征税率相同。因此，相对价格不会改变。第二，增值税不会影响储蓄消费决策因为节约征税将只有一次；即仅当在消费上花费储蓄时。第三，一个家庭的工作休闲的决定，将会影响增值税。休闲时不征税，但消费时花在货物上就需要征税。（相反，所得税影响储蓄消费决策和工作休闲决定。）一家公司的增值税不会影响有关筹资投入（债务或股权）的决定，除非选择一些供应商能豁免或零税点。一个或多个这些类型的决策，可能会影响其他类型的税。但这种概念上的纯增值税形式是不可行的。对所有的消费品，不能不征收增值税；因为相对于征税货物，课税货品的价格将上涨。这种相对价格的变化会影响消费者购买的有关货品的决定，因此，生产的商品决策企业。此外，大多数国家的电视胸腔镜手术有多个税率。多个