现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter

1、Chapter 9 Changes in Word MeaningCauses of Changes in Word MeaningFour Tendencies in Semantic ChangeSemantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meanin

2、g to established words.Causes of Changes in Word MeaningHistorical cause 历史原因It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed .*Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common i

3、n the history of science.Eg.pencil =is from a Latin word meaning a little tail “ or a fine brush ”, like our Chinese pen”毛 笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a pencil.atom =It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant original

4、ly an particle too small to be divided ” . Thimeaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.Social cause 社会原因Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semant

5、ic change.Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses.Eg.feedback (Electr.) =means response in common use ,as in The teacher likes to have feedback from his students;allergic (Med.尸means being unusually sensitive to the action of particula

6、r foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.”*A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use .Eg.energy =(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do workdecline =(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms ofForeign influences 外来文化影响A particularly important cause .eg.-

7、pig ,sheep ,ox(cow) denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals.-dream meant joy in OE, it gets its modern

8、 sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.Linguistic cause语言上的原因Two tendencies: towards ellipsis 省略 and towards analogy 类推.Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj.+n.,or attributive n.+n .,in which the noun is often deleted and only the first

9、element (the attributive )is left ,but retaining the sense of the whole phrase .eg.a general -a general officer 位将军an editorial -an editorial article 篇社论bugle -bugle horn 号角transistor transistor radio 收音机gold -gold medal ,as in the Olympicdaily -daily newspaper 日报Games金牌duplicate -duplicate copy 副本u

10、niform -uniform dress 制服Analogical tendency: New meanings developed in one part of speech are passedon to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.eg.diplomatic (外交的， 外交上的 )which had earlier meant only skillful in managing international relations, had by 1826 developed the sense of tactful i

11、n the management of relations of any kind ;artful management it dealing with others. By 1848 , this new meaning had been passed on to the noun diplomacy.(外交；外交手腕；交际手段)Psychological cause心理学上的原因*Three formsEuphemism 委婉People have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasa

12、nt or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body.eg. hence death and things related to deathto pass away-to go westto breathe ones last-to kick the bucketto cease to think-to be no moreto fall asleepGr

13、andiloquence 夸张Grandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effort .The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in

14、the change of word meaning.eg.janitor看门人；守卫；门警-custodian管理人；监护人；保管人gardener园丁；花匠；园艺家 -landscape architect造园技师；环境美化设计家reform school教养院；少年犯管教所 -community home少年感化院；Cynicism 嘲讽Cynicism: the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.eg .pious虔诚的；敬神的；可嘉的；尽责的 -hypocritically virtuous 伪善地善良fanatic 狂热的； 盲信的 unrea

15、sonably enthusiastic ,almost approaching to madness grandiloquent 夸张的； 夸大的； 大言不惭的pompous in language ;given to beautiful talksanctimonious彳段装虔诚的；彳段装圣洁的；彳段装诚实的-devout ,holy or sacredFour Tendencies in Semantic ChangeRestriction of meaning (specialization)词义的缩小 /具体化Restriction of meaning means that a

16、word of wide meaning acquires a narrow , specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted. eg.ConditionWordsOriginal meaningMeaning after restrictionmeatfood,esp.solid food , as distinguished from drinkthe flesh of animals used as food ,excluding fish and bi

17、rdswifewomanmarried woman esp. in relation toher husbandsuccessresult ,outcomea favourable or satisfactory outcome or resultwhen it passes into a special fieldclean room/white rooma room for the manufacture or assembly of objects (as precision parts )that is maintained at a high level of cleanliness

18、 by special meansdependent on ones profession or chief interests in lifepipeTo musician -a simple tubelike musical instrument ,played by blowingTo tobacco smoker and an architect -it suggests other and quite different meaningsunder the influence of local conditionsNickelin the U.S. means a coin ,val

19、ue 5 cents ”new words move into the languagewashablesth. is able to be washedsth. esp. clothing ,that can be washed in water without being solidedbreakablesth. is easily brokenimplies that one has to take good care of it and handle it carefullyExtension of meaning (generalization)词义的扩大 /普遍化Extension

20、 of meaning: means the widening of a word s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.*Two main reasons for this tendency :The predominant developmental trend is in the direction of differentiation rather than of synthesis;Related to the first ,is that the formation of general

21、 concepts from specific terms is of lesser importance in non-scientific communication though it is rather a characteristic of scientific endeavor.eg.ConditionWordsOriginal meaningMeaning after extendedbirdfrom OE bird ,a young birda general term for feathered creatures with two legs and wings ,usual

22、ly able to flyplantfrom L planta ,a sprouta generic term for the whole botanical specieslost their precise meaning and have gradually faded into such a vague sense that they may stand foralmostanythingthing(business ,state ,condition, matter,circumstance, fact , etc.) all-purpose worda council ,cour

23、t ,or controversyused as a substitute for nearly any noun depending on the context in which it is usedgenerousfrom L generosus of noble birth”willingto give orshare ;unselfish ;liberalDegeneration of meaning (pejoration)词义的降格 /语义转贬Two main forms:The failing of word meaning into disrepute, for one re

24、ason or another . eg. sillyOriginated from the AS s?lig meaning blessing and happy”Since the blessed people are usually those innocent of evil ,the word came to mean innocent” in the 17th centuryAs innocent people are so often those leading simple lives, it later came to mean simple” and simple-mind

25、ed”, which is often associated with lack of intelligence ”hence the modern meaning of the word silly : foolish .This form may take the form of the gradual extension to so many senses that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost.*This form refers to the weakening of meanin

26、g resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.Elevation of meaning (amelioration)词义的升格 /语义改良Elevation of meaning: a word meaning takes a turn for the bette门n the course of time, and has either risen from a snarl word to a purr word ,or from a slang term to a common word.e

27、g.WordsOriginal meaningMeaning after elevationmarshala horse tender 驯马师officer of highest rank 元帅； 司仪ministeran attendant ,a servant牧师a person at the head of a Department of State 部长； 大臣fondfoolishtender and affectionate喜欢的；温柔的；宠爱的Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of W

28、ordsMetaphor隐喻，暗喻Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similahty, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing in applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning. eg.

29、food for thought ,a heart of stone ;thunderous applause a cunning person fox a beautiful woman vision 美景Two types:The similarity between tenor and vehicle may be based on likeness in form or appearance; on a resemblance in relative position; in quality or in function.eg. eye of a needle the teeth of

30、 a comb the bridge of a pair of eyeglasses the crest of a mountainThere is one psychological process which also produces linguistic results similar to those of metaphor:eg. synaesthesia.联觉 which is based on transportation from one sense to another*Many words have been used so frequently as metaphors that their metaphorical sense have become well-established in people nsinds. They are called faded metaph