高层结构与钢结构-毕业设计外文翻译

1、第 1 页外文原文Talling Building And Steel ConstructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building constructiontechnology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in thedesign and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The earlydevelopment of high-rise buildings began with structur

2、al steelframing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have sincebeen economically and competitively used in a number of structures forboth residentialand commercial purposes.The high-risebuildingsrangingfrom 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United Statesare the result

3、 of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to makebuildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyondan acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurringdamage to partitions,ceilings.and other a

4、rchitectural details. Inaddition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of thebuilding because their perception of such motion.Structural systems ofreinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherentpotential stiffness of the total building and therefore requireadditio

5、nal stiffening to limit the sway.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel hadan early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concreteprogressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllengetostructural steel systems for both office and apartment building

6、s.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept fortall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut ApartmentBuilding.In thisbuilding,exteriorcolumns were spaced at 5.5ft(1.68m)centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in .-thick (20-m) flat-plate co

7、ncrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office第 2 页buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with anexteriorframed tube.The system consistsof an outerframed tube of veryclosely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosingthe centralserv

8、ice area.The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tubesystem , made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714ftor 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell PlazaBuilding in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wallstructure of only 35 stories.Systems combi

9、ning both concrete and steel have also been developed,an examle of whichisthecomposite systemdeveloped by skidmore, Owings&Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concreteenvelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages ofboth reinforced concrete and structural

10、steel systems. The 52-story OneShell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Ina steelstructure,forexample,theeconomy can be definedintermsof the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area ofthe building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight ofaconven

11、tionalframe withincreasingnumbers of stories.Curve B representsthe average steelweightifthe frameis protectedfrom all lateralloads.The gap between theupper boundary and thelower boundary represents thepremium forheight forthe traditional column-and-beam frame.Structuralengineers have developed struc

12、tural systems with a view to eliminatingthis premium. Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed asa resultofseveraltypes of structuralinnovations.The innovationshavebeen appliedtotheconstructionofbothofficeand apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior

13、columnsof a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigidbelt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used.A good example ofthissystem is theFirstWisconsin Bank Building(1974)in Milwaukee.Framed tube.The maximumefficiency of the total structureof a tallbuildi

14、ng, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be第 3 页achieved onlyifallcolumn elementcan be connectedto each other insucha way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box inprojecting out of the ground. This particular structural system wasprobably used for the first ti

15、me in the 43-story reinforced concreteDeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant useof this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-storyWorld Trade Center building in New York.Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building canbe spaced reaso

16、nably far apart and yet be made to work together asa tubeby connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre lineof the columns andbeams. This simple yetextremely efficientsystem wasused for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using asmuch steel as is normally needed

17、 for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube.With the continuingneed forlargerand tallerbuildings,the framed tube or the column-diagonaltrusstubemaybe used ina bundledform to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency.The 110-storySears Roebuck HeadquartersBuildinginChicago

18、has ninetube,bundled at thebase of the buildinginthree rows. Someof these individualtubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating theunlimitedarchitecturalpossibilitiesofthislateststructuralconcept.The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the worlds tallestbuilding.Str

19、essed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developedforimprovingthe resistanceto lateralforces (windand earthquake)andthecontrolofdrift(lateralbuildingmovement)inhigh-risebuilding.The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. Thedevelopment of the stressed-skin tubeutilize

20、sthe fa?ade of the buildingas a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providingan efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, andresultingin cost-effectivecolumn-freeinteriorspace with a high ratioof net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of thest

21、ressed- skin fa?ade, the framed members of the tube require less mass,第 4 页and are thuslighterand V lessexpensive. All thetypicalcolumns andspandrel beams are standard rolledshapes,minimizingtheuse and cost ofspecial built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeterspandrelbeamsisalsoreduced

22、,and theneed forupset beamsabove floors,which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structuralsystem has been used on the 54-storyOne MellonBank Centerin Pittburgh.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building constructionin which steel plays the leading role. Most steel const

23、ruction consistsof large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generallyin the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shapedthrough the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of othermaterials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steelindustrieso

24、f theU.S, U.K, U.S.S.R,Japan, West German, France,and othersteel producers in the 1970s.Earlyhistory.The historyofsteelconstructionbeginsparadoxicallyseveral decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and theSiemens-Martin (openj-hearth)processes madeitpossibleto produce steelin quantities suff

25、icient for structure use. Many of problems of steelconstruction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction,which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over theSevern River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work,in addition to the construction of ste

26、am boilers and iron ship hulls ,spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, andjioning. The advantages of iron overmasonry lay in the much smalleramounts of material required.The truss form, based onthe resistance ofthe triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translat

27、edeffectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compressionmembers-i.e,thosebearing theweightof directloading-andwrought ironbeing used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspendedloading.The techniqueforpassingiron,heated totheplasticstate,betweenrolls to form flat and rounde

28、d bars, was developed as early as 1800;by第 5 页1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet(5.4m)long,were fabricatedas roofgirdersfora Parisrailroadstation.Two yearslaterJoseph Paxton ofEngland builttheCrystal Palace forthe London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conc

29、eived the idea ofcage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton forthe glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces inthe Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature areparticularly important in the history of metal construction; first, th

30、euse of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developedin timberbridges and otherstructuresand translatedintometal by Paxton ;and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-ironcompression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor

31、beams were rolled for the Cooper UnionBuildingin NewYork. In the lightofthe principalmarket demandforironbeamsatthetime, itisnotsurprisingthatthe CooperUnion beams closelyresembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way

32、 to the use of steel for structuralpurpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newlyavailablemetal was seizedon by imaginativeengineers,notablyby thoseinvolved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then indemand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example

33、was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. LouisBridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were usedto form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, theFirthofForth cantileverbridge(1883-90)employed tubular struts,some12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m)

34、long. Such bridges and otherstructures were important in leading to the development and enforcementof standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lackof adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis fortheoreticalstudies,limitedthe value of stressanalysisduringthee

35、arlyyears of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a第 6 页cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare inthe metal-skeletonofficebuildings;thesimplicityof their designprovedhighlypracticaleven inthe absence ofsophisticatedanalysistechniques.Throughout thefir

36、stthirdofthe century,ordinarycarbon steel,withoutany special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-risebuildingwas demonstratedto the worldby the ParisExpositionof1889.forwhich Alexandre-GustaveEiffel,a leadingFrench bridge e

37、ngineer,erectedan openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-morethan double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the workin a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States anot

38、herimportantdevelopmentwas takingplace.In1884-85 Maj. WilliamLe BaronJenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building,ten storieshigh,witha metal skeleton.Jenneys beams were ofBessemersteel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supportingmasonry over window openi

39、ngs were, in turn, supported on the cast ironcolumns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral supportagainst wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction hadbeen used in more than30 officebuildingsin Chicago and NewYork. Steelplayed a larger and larger role in these , wit

40、h riveted connections forbeams and columns,sometimes strengthenedfor wind bracingby overlayinggusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Lightmasonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the oldheavy masonry curtainwalls,supportedat each floor level, replaced

41、 theold heavy masonry.Though the new constructionform was toremain centred almostentirelyin America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry wasworldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structuralshapes-I beamsup to 20 in. (0.508m) indepth and Z and Tshapes of lesserpro

42、portions were readily available, to combine with plates of several第 7 页widths and thicknessesto make efficientmembersof any requiredsizeandstrength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced throughhot-rollingweighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms)per foot;decadeby decade thisfigurerose unt

43、ilin the1960s itexceeded 700 pounds (320kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came theintroductionof theOtis electricelevator in 1889. The demonstrationofa safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economicalsteel constructionmethod, sentbuildinghei

44、ghtssoaring.In NewYork the286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) ,the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metro

45、politanTower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio broughtproblems. To limit street congestion, building setback design wasprescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support wasstudied.A diagonalbracing sy

46、stem, such as thatused inthe EiffelTower,was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight forillumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bendingresistanceof certainindividualbeamsand columns strategicallydesignedinto the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of

47、 rigidity soughtat the junction of the beams and columns.With todays modern interiorlighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads hasreturned;one notableexample isthe John Hancock CenterinChicago, wherethe external X- braces form a dramatic part of the structures fa?ade.World War I

48、brought an interruption to the boom in what had come tobe called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in theEmpire State Building in the 1931. The Empire States 102 stories(1,250ft. 381m) were to keep it establis

49、hed as the hightest buildingin the worldforthe next 40 years. Its speed of the erectiondemonstrated第 8 页how thoroughlythe new constructiontechniquehad been mastered.A depotacross the bay at Bayonne, N.J.,suppliedthe girdersby lighterand truckon a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derr

50、icks powerdeby electrichoistsliftedthe girdersto position;an industrial-railwaysetup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connectionswere made by bolting, closelyfollowed by riveting, followed by masonryand finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwid

51、e depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the sametime the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfullyachieved by the end of the 19

52、th century and was used in emergency shiprepairsduring World War I,but itsapplicationto constructionwaslimiteduntil after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been theintroduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in fieldconnections.Since the close of World War II, research in

53、Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different typesof structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. Thisin turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes i

54、n most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.中文翻译高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。第 9 页最初的高层建筑设计是从钢结构的设计开始的。钢筋混凝土和受力外包钢筒系统运用起来是

55、比较经济的系统， 被有效地运用于大批的民用建筑和商业建筑中。50 层到 100 层的建筑被定义为超高层建筑。而这种建筑在美国得广泛的应用是由于新的结构系统的发展和创新。 这样的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸， 这样以来可以使建筑物更加坚固以至于在允许的限度范围内承受风荷载而不产生弯曲和倾斜。过分的倾斜会导致建筑的隔离构件、 顶棚以及其他建筑细部产生循环破坏。除此之外，过大的摇动也会使建筑的使用者们因感觉到这样的的晃动而产生不舒服的感觉。无论是钢筋混凝土结构系统还是钢结构系统都充分利用了整个建筑的刚度潜力，因此不能指望利用多余的刚度来限制侧向位移。钢筋混凝土中的各体系： 虽然钢结构的高层建筑起步比较早

56、， 但是钢筋混凝土的高层建筑的发展非常快， 无论在办公大楼还是公寓住宅方面都成为刚结构体系的有力竞争对手。框架筒：像上面所提到的，框架筒构思首次被用。在这座大楼中，外柱的柱距为5.5 英尺（ 1.68寸厚的无梁板。43 层的迪威斯公寓大楼所采米）。而内柱则需要支撑 8 英筒中筒结构：另一种针对于办公大楼的钢筋混凝土体系把传统的剪力墙结构与外框架筒相结合。该体系由柱距很小的外框架与围绕中心设备区的刚性剪力墙筒组成。这种筒中筒结构（如插图 2）使得当前世界上最高的轻质混凝土大楼 （在休斯顿建造的独壳购物中心大厦） 的整体造价只与 35 层的传统剪力墙结构相当。钢结构与混凝土结构的联合体系也有所发展

57、。 Skidmore ,Owings 和 Merrill 共同设计的混合体系就是一个好例子。 在此体系中，外部的混凝土框架筒包围着内部的钢框架，从而结合了钢筋混凝土体系与钢结构体系各自的优点。 在新奥尔良建造的 52 层的独壳广场大厦就是运用了这种体系。钢结构是指在建筑物结构中钢材起着主导作用的结构， 是一个很宽泛的概念。大部分的钢结构都包括建筑设计，工程技术、工艺。通常还包括以主梁、次梁、杆件，板等形式存在的钢的热轧加工工艺。 上个世纪七十年代，除了对其他材料的需求在增长，钢结构仍然保持着对于来自美国、英国、日本、西德、法国等国家的钢材厂钢材的大量需求。在钢结构系统设计中， 经济预算是根据每

58、平方英寸地板面积上的钢材的数量确定的。图示 1 中的曲线 A 显示了常规框架的平均单位的重量随着楼层数的增加而增加的情况。而曲线 B 显示则显示的是在框架被保护而不受任何侧向荷载的情况下的钢材的平均重量。 上界和下界之间的区域显示的是传统梁柱框架的造价随第10页高度而变化的情况。而结构工程师改进结构系统的目的就是减少这部分造价。钢结构中的体系： 钢结构的高层建筑的发展是几种结构体系创新的结果。 这些创新的结构已经被广泛地应用于办公大楼和公寓建筑中。刚性带式桁架的框架结构： 为了联系框架结构的外柱和内部带式桁架， 可以在建筑物的中间和顶部设置刚性带式桁架。 1974 年在米望基建造的威斯康森银行

59、大楼就是一个很好的例子。 框架筒结构： 如果所有的构件都用某种方式互相联系在一起，整个建筑就像是从地面发射出的一个空心筒体或是一个刚性盒子一样。这个时候此高层建筑的整个结构抵抗风荷载的所有强度和刚度将达到最大的效率。这种特殊的结构体系首次被芝加哥的 43 层钢筋混凝土的德威特红棕色的公寓大楼所采用。但是这种结构体系的的所有应用中最引人注目的还要属在纽约建造的 100 层的双筒结构的世界贸易中心大厦。 斜撑桁架筒体： 建筑物的外柱可以彼此独立的间隔布置， 也可以借助于通过梁柱中心线的交叉的斜撑构件联系在一起，形成一个共同工作的筒体结构。 这种高度的结构体系首次被芝加哥的 John Hancock

60、 中心大厦采用。这项工程所耗用的刚才量与传统的四十层高楼的用钢量相当。筒体：随着对更高层建筑的要求不断地增大。筒体结构和斜撑桁架筒体被设计成捆束状以形成更大的筒体来保持建筑物的高效能。芝加哥的 110 层的 Sears Roebuck 总部大楼有 9 个筒体，从基础开始分成三个部分。这些独立筒体中的终端处在不同高度的建筑体中， 这充分体现出了这种新式结构观念的建筑风格自由化的潜能。这座建筑物 1450 英尺（ 442 米）高，是世界上最高的大厦。薄壳筒体系统：这种筒体结构系统的设计是为了增强超高层建筑抵抗侧力的能力（风荷载和地震荷载） 以及建筑的抗侧移能力。薄壳筒体是筒体系统的又一大飞跃。薄壳