考研真题2004年语言学基础

中山大学2004年攻读入学考试试1./2.chimney/3.sacrifice5.agenda/9.Greenwich////4.hierachry6.chaotic8pamphlet10.///plementary3.assimilation5.contrastiveTheMeaningofNoam12.13.15.J.R.Prescriptivegrammarisagrammarwhichstatesrulesforwhatisconsideredthebestormostcorrectusage.Itisoftenbasednotondescriptionsofactualusagebutratheronthegrammarian’sviewsofwhatisbest.Backformationreferstoanabnormaltypeofwords-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixformalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Italsostudieslanguagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition;biologicalfoundationsoflanguage;andtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition.AccordingtoSapir-Whorfhypothesis,languagedeterminesourthinkingpatterns;similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldis.Thisisreferredtoaslinguisticrelativity.ThetermphaticcommunionoriginatesfromMalinowski’sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguage.Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.Weallusesmall,seemlinglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.Ritualexchangesabouthealthorweatheroftenstatetheobviousphaticcommunion.TraditionalgrammarisagrammarthatisusuallybasedonearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek.Itisoftennotionalandprescriptiveintheirapproach.Thosewordsthatexpressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,aregrammaticalwords.Insystemic-functionalgrammar,themeistheelementwhichservesasthepointofdepartureofthemessage;itisthatwithwhichtheclauseisconcerned.ThecooperativeprincipleproposedbyPaulGricefollowsassuch:makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationshipbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusiveandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordiante,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Thewidelyaccepteddesigningfeatureofarbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.Herewehavetolookattheothersideofthecoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaboring.Forlearnersofaforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthnoticingthanitsarbitrariness.Chomsky’sinnateness basedonhisobservationsthatsomeimportantfactsneverbeotherwiseexplainedadequay.,childrenlearntheirnativelanguagefastandwithlittleeffort.Itissaidthatchildren efluentspeakersoftheirnativelanguagebyoffive.Consideringthefactthatsmallchildrenarenotyetinlectuallymatureforanyothersciences,thisissurprisingfast.Second,thereareotherfactsthatarepuzzlingiflanguageisnotinnate.Childrenlearntheirmothertongueinverydifferentenvironments.Buttheyfollowmoreorlessthesamestagesinacquisition:thebabblingstage,nonsensewordstage,holophrasticstage,two–wordutterance,develogrammar,near-adultgrammar,andfullcompetence.Despitethegreatdifferenceinlinguisticenvironment,theyreachuniformlevelsofcompetence.Childrenmaybegoodatdifferentthings.Butintheirlanguageacquisition,theirdifferenceisamazinglysmall.Third,thechildlearnsthetotalgrammarofthelanguageduringalimitedperiodoftime,fromlimitedexposuretospeech(whichisoftendegeneratedata).Hecannotonlyproduceandunderstandsentenceshehasheard,butalsosentenceshehasneverheardbefore.Whathelearnsseemstobesetofrulesratherthanindividualsentences.Allthesesuggestthatalthoughbabiesarenotbornknowingalanguage,theyarebornwithapredispositiontodevelopalanguageinmuchthesamewayastheyarebornwithapredispositiontoleanertowalk.Liketheabilitytowalk,theabilitytospeakandunderstandspokenlangueseemstobeanaturalhumanactivity.Theinteralfunctionembodiesallusesoflanguagetoexpresssocialandalrelations.Thisincludesthevariouswaysthespeakerentersaspeechsituationandperformsaspeechact.Becausetheclauseisnotconfinedtotheexpressionoftransitivity,therearenon-ideationalelementsintheadultlanguagesystem.Theseelementsaregroupedtogetherasthismetafunctioninthegrammarcoveringawholerangeofparticularusesoflanguage.InteralfunctionisrealizedbyMOODandMODALITY.MOODshowswhatrolethespeakerselectsinthespeechsituationandwhatroleheassignstotheaddressee.Ifthespeakerselectstheimperativemood,forexample,heassumestheroleofonegivingcommandsandputstheaddresseeintheroleofoneexpectedtoobeyorders.MODALITYspecifiesifthespeakerisexpressinghisjudgmentormakingaprediction.Forexample,Givemethatteapot.Thestudyofspeechsoundsispartitionedbetweentwodistinctbutrelateddisciplines,phoneticsandphonology.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguage.Thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects.Phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticspatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguage,withitspriimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthaternthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguage,andtoexplainthevariationsteatoccur.Thehumanvocalapparatuscanproduceaverywiderangeofsoundsbutonlyasmallnumberoftheseareusedinalanguagetoconstructallofiswordsandsentences.Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Phonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwithaspectsofspeechproductionorperceptionasthesearepurelytheresultofthephysicalpropertiesofthesystem.InthestudyofcoarticualtioninEnglish,forexample,itisoftensaidthatthearticulationofthe[t]soundsinthewordsteaandtoodifferfromeachotherslightly.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowthesetwo[t]’sdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliessuchvariations.Withthedevelopmentoftransformational-generativegrammarandotherlinguistictheories,somechangesofattitudeshavetakenplace.ofall,thenatureoflanguageisviewsdifferently—learningalanguageinvolvesmakingconstanthypothesesaboutthestructureofthelanguage.Thelearnertestshisnowhypothesisagainstwhatthenativespeakersays.Theerrorshemakesareactuallyhisincorrecthypothesesaboutthenewlanguage.Anotherlinguisticsystembasedontheobservationoutputwhichresultsfromalearner’sattemptedproductionofalanguageform.Interlanguageisformedwhenthelearnerattemptstolearnanewlanguage,andithasfeaturesofboththeandthesecondlanguagebutitThepost-structuralists,therefore,regarderrorsasevidenceofthelearningprocessbymakinghypothesisaboutlanguage;thelearnerarrivesataparticularinterlanguage.Thenhemodifieshishypothesisandgoesontowardsthelanguage.Obviously,errorscanbefoundatthestageofinterlanguage.AsstatedbyCorder,errorsaresignificantinthreedifferentways:Theyltheteacher,ifheundertakesasystematicysis,howfartowardsthegoalthelearnerhasprogressedandconsequentlywhenremainsforhimtolearn.Theyprovidetheresearcherswithevidenceofhowlanguageislearnedoracquired,whatstrategiesorproceduresthelearnerisemployinginhisdiscoveryofthelanguage.Theyareindispensabletothelearnerhimself,becausewecanregardthemakingoferrorsasadevicethelearnerusesinordertolearn.Itisawaythelearnerhasoftestinghishypothesisaboutthenatureofthelanguageheislearning.Themakingoferrorsthenisastrategyemployedbothbychildrenacquiringtheirmothertongueandadultslearningasecondlanguage.Chomskybelievesthatlangueissomewhatinnate,andthatchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsalangueacquisitiondevice(LAD),whichisauniquekindofknowledgethatfitsthemforlanguagelearning.Hearguesthechildcomesintotheworldwithspecificinnateendowment,notonlywithgeneraltendenciesorpotentialities,butalsowitowledgeofthenatureoftheworld,andspecificallywithknowledgeofthenatureoflanguage.Accordingtohisview,childrenarebornwithknowledgeofthebasicgrammaticalrelationsandcategories,andthisknowledgeisuniversal.Thecategoriesandrelationshipexistinalhumanlanguagesandallhumaninfantsarebornwitowledgeofthem.Accordingtohim,t