跨文化中的交际障碍(英语论文)

.PAGE.摘要当代,新技术、人口的增长及全球经济区域的变换都促进了跨文化交际的增加。因此,跨文化交际在今天变得不可分离。由于在跨文化交际日趋的盛行与交流障碍的频繁发生中,影响交流的因素值得关注,而引起交流障碍的主要因素是文化的差异及对这个问题缺乏了解,因此我们需要找到解决这个问题的方法,如加强文化意识,避免反方向的思维模式及培养跨文化交际的能力,通过这种方式,才能使我们的跨文化交际顺利进行。关键词:文化差异；跨文化；交流；障碍ABSTRACTNowadays,newtechnologies,growthoftheworld’spopulation,andshiftintheglobaleconomicareahaveallcontributedtotheincreaseincross-culturalcommunication.Therefore,cross-culturalcommunicationhasbecomeindispensabletoday.Becauseofthefierceconflictsbetweenthepopularityofcross-culturalcommunicationandthefrequentlyhappeningcommunicationbarriers,thefactorsaffectingcommunicationaredrawingmuchmoreattention.Thebarriersaremainlycausedbyculturaldifferencesandlackofawarenessaboutthisissue.Hence,wehavetofigureoutsomesolutionstodealwithit,suchasstrengthenculturalawareness,avoidnegativestereotypeandcultivatecross-culturalcommunicationcompetence.Onlyinthiswaycanweachieveasatisfyingresultfromtheinterculturalcommunication.KeyWords:Culturedifference；Cross-cultural；barrier；communicationContentsChapterOneIntroduction 1ChapterTwoTheRelationshipamongLanguage,Culture,andCross-culture22.1DefinitionofCulture22.2DefinitionofCross-culturalCommunication22.3RelationshipbetweenLanguageandCulture3ChapterThreeTheBarriersinCross-cultureCommunication43.1FormofAddress43.2ValueOrientation43.3Politeness43.4Privacy53.5Taboos5ChapterFourTheCausesofBarriersinCross-cultureCommunication64.1AttitudetowardstheRelationshipsofHumanstoNature64.2SenseofTime64.3DifferentSocialRelationships7ChapterFiveTheWaystoDealWithBarriersinCross-culturalCommunication 85.1RaisingAwareness85.2MakingPractice85.3ChangingtheViewingAngle9ChapterSixConclusion10Reference11Acknowledgement12ChapterOneIntroductionLanguageusedbyhumanbeingsisthemostbasictoolforcommunication,whichplaysacrucialroleintheprocessofhumanhistoricaldevelopment.Weusewordstopersuade,toexchangeideas,toexpressviews,toseekinformationandtoexpressfeelings.Wemakeculturalchoiceswhenweareusinghumanlanguagetocommunicatewithotherpeople.Cultureshapesourideasandplaysacrucialroleoninfluencingourwayofusinglanguage.Atthesametime,languagecanalsobeconsideredasawindowtotheculture.Theyarecloselyconnectedwitheachotherandcanneverbeseparated.Therefore,weshouldnotonlylearnlinguisticskillswellbutalsoknowmuchknowledgeaboutforeignculturesifwewanttomasteraforeignlanguageandbecomeaneffectivecommunicator.Butthefactisthatmanypeopledon’tpaymuchattentiontothedifferentculturesandusewordstocommunicatewithothersinaninappropriatewayandinappropriateoccasion.Inthisway,thebarriersoftenoccurduringthecross-culturalcommunication.Becauseofthefierceconflictsbetweenthepopularityofcross-culturalcommunicationandthefrequentlyhappeningcommunicationbarriers,thefactorsaffectingcommunicationaredrawingmuchmoreattentionfromtheresearchers.Thebarriersaremainlycausedbyculturaldifferencesandlackofawarenessaboutthisissue.Hence,wehavetofigureoutsomesolutionstodealwithit,suchasstrengthenculturalawareness,avoidnegativestereotypeandcultivatecross-culturalcommunicationcompetence.Onlyinthiswaycanweachieveasatisfyingresultfromtheinterculturalcommunication.ChapterTwoTherelationshipamonglanguage,cultureandcross-cultureTheknowledgeaboutdefinitionofculture,cross-culturalcommunicationandtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureareoughttobefamiliartous.2.1DefinitionofCultureTheword"culture"isalargeandevasiveconcept,verycomplexanddifficulttodefine.Therearehundredsofdefinitionsforculture.HereIpresentonlytwoconceptswhichIfavormost.Theoneis"Acultureisacollectionofbeliefs,habits,livingpatterns,andbehaviorswhichareheldmoreorlessincommonbypeoplewhooccupyparticulargeographicareas."<H.D.Brown,40>Theotherisexplainedinamoredetailedway:"cultureisman’smedium;thereisnotoneaspectofhumanlifethatisnottouchedandalteredbyculture.Thismeanspersonality,howpeopleexpressthemselves<includingshowsofemotion>,thewaytheythink,howtheymove,howproblemsaresolved,howtheircitiesareplannedandlaidout,howtransportationsystemsfunctionandareorganized,aswellashoweconomicandgovernmentsystemsareputtogetherandfunction."〔EdwardT.Hall,402.2DefinitionofCross-culturalCommunicationAsisknowntoall,thecross-culturalcommunicationhasbecomeincreasinglyimportantforhumans.Theneedforcross-culturalcommunicationisasoldashumankind.We’vediscussedthedefinitionofculture.Now,itisnecessarytoknowsomethingabouttheconceptsofcross-culturalcommunication.Thecross-culturalcommunication<alsofrequentlyreferredtoasinter-culturalcommunication,whichisalsousedinadifferentsense,though>isafieldofstudythatlooksathowpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundscommunicate,insimilarordifferentwaysamongthemselves,andhowtheyendeavortocommunicateacrosscultures.2.3RelationshipbetweenLanguageandCultureLanguageandculturearecloselyconnectedwitheachotheranditisimpossibletoseparatelanguagefromourculture.Asisknowntoall,languagehasbeenactingasaveryimportantroleintheprocessofhumanhistoricaldevelopment.JustastheAmericanpoetRalphWaldoEmerson’ssimplesentence"languageisthearchivesofhistory".Hisdeclarationmakesusrealizethatoneofthemajorcharacteristicsidentifyingusashumansisourabilitytouselanguagetomakesoundsandmarksserveassubstitutesforthingsandfeelings.Inthepast,peopleusuallyregardedlanguageassimplyaneutralmedium,whichdidnotinfluencethewaypeopleexperiencedtheworld.Itwasmerelyavehiclebywhichideaswerepresented,ratherthanashapeofverysubstanceofthoseideas.Thisviewwasdeniedbylaterlinguists.Thenewpointisthatlanguageandculturearecloselylinkedwitheachother.Languageisthereflectionofcultureandcultureisareflectionoflanguage.Cultureinfluenceslanguagebywayofsymbolsandrulesaswellasourperceptionsoftheuniverse.Eachtimeweselectwords,formsentences,andsendamessage,eitheroralorwritten,wealsomakeculturalchoices.Ifweselectlanguagewithoutbeingawareoftheculturalimplications,wemaybeatbestnottocommunicatewellandatworstsendthewrongmessage.Atthesametime,languageisthemostsymbolicreflectionofculture.Membersoftheculturehavecreatedthelanguagetocarryoutalltheirculturalpractices,toidentifyandorganizealltheirculturalproducts,andtonametheunderlyingculturalperspectivesinallthevariouscommunitiesthatcomprisetheirculture.Thewordsoflanguage,itsexpressions,structures,soundsandscriptsreflecttheculture,justastheculturalproductsandpracticesreflectthelanguage.Language,therefore,isperceivedaswindowtotheculture.Inaword,itisimpossibletoseparatelanguageandcultureapart.Hence,inourprocessofinterculturalcommunicationnotonlythelinguisticusageofcertainlanguageshouldbeemphasizedbutalsohowtousethelanguageintherighttimeaswellastherightoccasion.Ifwefailtodothis,communicationbarriersmustoccur.ChapterThreeThebarriersincross-culturecommunicationBecauseofthenegativetransferofnativeculturetotargetculture,barriersoftenoccurincross-culturecommunication.3.1FormofAddressInChina,it’squitenaturalforstudentstocalltheirteachersbycombingthetitleoftheprofessionandthefirstname.Forexample:ZhangLingisaChineseteacher,soit’srighttocallher"ZhangLaoshi"forherstudents.Butinwesterncountries,especiallyinAmerica,"teacher"isjustaprofessionbutnotaformofaddress.TherightwaytogreetteachersistoaddMr/Mrs/Missinfrontofone’sfamilyname,orcalltheirnamestraightforwardly.3.2ComplimentsandPraiseTherearemanydifferencesbetweenAmericansandChineseinreplyingtocompliments.AmericanstendtoacceptthecomplimentwhileChinesegenerallymurmursomereplyaboutnotbeingworthyofthepraise.ToEnglish-speakingpeople,praiseistobeaccepted,generallywitharemarklike"Thankyou."Itisassumedthatthecomplimentissincere.Therefore,thereshouldbenoshowoffalsehumility,nopretendedmodesty.ToChinese,however,thecustomaryreplytoacomplimentwouldbetoclaimthatoneisnotworthyofthepraise,thatwhatonehasdoneishardlyenough,orthatsuccesswasmoreamatterofluckorsomeothercircumstances.Acceptanceofacomplimentwouldimplyconceitorlackofmanners.3.3PolitenessBeingpoliteisoneofthemainsignalsofhumancivilization.Differentcultureshavedifferentwaysofshowingpolitenesstoothers.InChina,peoplepaymuchattentiontobehaviorsandtendtoexpresscourtesyinanindirectway.Butforwesterners,theyarelikelytouselanguagetoexpresstheirpolitenessorallyinaverydirectway.Theyareoftensaying"Hello","Nicetomeetyou","Youaresopretty"or"Youaresocute"tostrangersevenwithoutthinkingaboutit.Chinesepeoplewouldfeelconfusedabouttheirwordsandthinkthattheyaresoflippant.Onthecontrary,westernerswouldconsiderChinesepeopleasconservativeandstubborn.Imaginethat,ifanAmericanyoungboysawabeautifulgirlinthestreet,andhesaidloudlytothegirl,"youaresoprettytoday!"Thegirlmustbequiteuncomfortableandfeelsbashful.3.4PrivacyPeoplemustliveandinteracttogethertosurvive.Indoingso,theymustdevelopabalancebetweenshowingconcernforthemselvesandconcernforothers.Unlikethosewesterncountrieswhichtendtoholdtheindividualorientation,Chinesepeoplepreferacollectivistorientation.Thus,privacyinChinahasnotbeenplacedinapositionashighasinwesterncultures.WesternershavemuchstrongersenseofprivacythanChinesepeopledo.That’swhysomeforeignersfeelquiteuncomfortableandembarrassedaboutthose"intruded"questions.Actually,Chinesepeoplewhoaskthosequestionsdidn’tmeantooffendthem.It’sonlyawayofshowingcareandaffectiontotheforeignfriends.Therefore,we’dbetterchoosesomepublictopicswhenwecommunicateandinteractwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures,suchas"weather","sports",or"news".Itwouldcertainlydoagreathelptooursuccessofinterculturalcommunication.3.5TaboosInChinesetraditionalculture,oldpeopleweregivengreatrespectbyyoungergenerations.Becausewemaintainthatoldpeopleusuallyhavearichexperienceandcanalwaysgiveusmanyconstructivesuggestionswhenwewanttoachievesomeprogress.Hence,weareapttocallpeople"Laozhang","Laoshifu",and"Dajie"toshowourrespecttothosepeople.Theword"old"isgreatlyappreciatedandwidelyacceptedinChina.Butinwesterncountries,theword"old"isatabooforthem;theyusuallyavoidthiswordbyusingsomeeuphemisms.Forinstance,peoplearemorelikelytousetheterm"seniorcitizen"ratherthan"oldpeople"whentheyrefertosomeonewithanoldage.Soweshouldtrytoavoidthoseculturaltaboosandrespectother’scultures.Inthisway,wewouldkeepourcommunicationgoingsmoothlyandsomeembarrassingsituationscanbeavoidedeffectively.ChapterFourTheCausesofbarriersincross-culturecommunicationThisproblemcanbeanalyzedfromdifferentviewanglesbecauseofitsdiversityandcomplexity.Here,onlythreeofthemostbriefandeasilyunderstoodcausesarelistedbelow.4.1AttitudetowardstheRelationshipsofHumanstoNatureChinaisacountrywhichholdsaviewthatmanshouldbeharmoniouswithnatureandseekforpeacefulness.Webelievethatnaturewouldtreatuswellifwetreatnaturewell,sotherelationshipbetweenhumansandnatureisrespectandfear.Sinceourcultureteachesintegrationwithnature,harmonyandbalance,wearelikelytoseekharmonyandbalanceinsocialrelationshipaswell.What’smore,thesubstanceofConfucianisminChinaispeace.Confucianismadvocatesthatpeopleshouldbemodestandkeepabalancedrelationshipwiththeoutsideworld.Onthecontrary,westerners,especiallyAmericansseeaclearseparationbetweenmanandnatureandmanisclearlyheldtobeincharge.Thus,theyusuallyhaveaninsatiabledrivetosubdue,dominate,andcontroltheirnaturalenvironment.Becauseofthis,theythinktheyareseparatefromothersandcanusescientificmethodstocontrolpeopleandevents.That’sthereasonwhywesternersaresoprogressiveandpaymuchattentiontoself-developmentandplaceprivacyonaveryhighlevel.Therefore,thebarrierscanbearousedeasilyincross-culturalcommunication.4.2SenseofTimeThemajorityofChinesepeopleholdthebeliefofbothfutureandpastorientation.Ourculturalmemoriesarerichanddeep,peopleusuallylookbacktoaperiodwhentheywantedtomakechangesforthesakeofabsorbingthepastexperience.InChina,oldpeopleweregreatlyrespectedbyyoungsters.IntraditionalChinesefamily,importantdecisionshavetobeagreedbytheoldestpeopleinthefamily.Butinwesterncountries,oldpeopledon’tenjoyastatusashighasChineseoldpeopledo.Mostwesternersaredominatedbyabeliefinprogress.Theyarefutureoriented,andtheyhaveanoptimisticfaithinthefuture.Theytendtoequate"change"with"improvement"andconsiderarapidrateofchangeasnormal.Soitisnotuncommontofindoutthatwesternersusuallyhaveanegativefeelingtowardsoldpeople.Theyaretryingtoavoidreferringtotheword"old"intheirdailyconversation.That’swhytherearealargenumberofeuphemismsintheEnglishvocabulary.Ifwedon’tpaymuchattentiontothisparticularphenomenon,thebarrierscancertainlynotbeavoidedandsolved.4.3DifferentSocialRelationshipsChinesepeople’sbehaviorreflectsthegrouppatternofsocialrelationships.Inthegrouppatternofsocialrelationshipsmembersofgroupsmayberelativelyequal.Eachperson’ssocialidentitycomesfromtheirgroupmemberships.Peoplefeeldependentonthegroup,safewithinit,proudandcompetitivewithothergroups.Thegroupsneedtimetofindoutwhateachmemberisthinkingandfeeling.Oncethegrouphasmadethedecision,thewholegroupratherthanonepersonisresponsibleforit.Butinwesterncountries,peoplepaygreatattentiontotheimportanceoftheindividualandtheequalityofallpeople.StressontheindividualbeginsataveryagewhentheAmericanchildisencouragedtobeautonomous.Itisanacceptedrulethatchildrenshouldmakedecisionsthemselves,developtheirownopinions,solvetheirownproblems,andhavetheirownpossessions.Friendly,informal,outgoing,andextrovertedaretheircharacteristics.Theyaresoindependentfromotherpeoplethattheypaygreatemphasisonprivacy.Theyhopetheycanhavetheirownpersonalspaceandnottobeinvadedbyothers.Hence,thedifferentsocialrelationshipscanalsoberegardedasoneofthemostimportantreasonsofcausingbarriersincross-culturalcommunication.ChapterFiveTheWaystoDealWithbarriersincross-culturalcommunicationAsisknowntoall,thecross-culturalcommunicationhasbecomeaninevitabletrendintoday’ssociety.Inordertosolvetheproblemsofcross-culturalcommunicationandhaveaneffectivecross-culturalcommunication,weshouldadoptmanydifferentkindsofmethodsandtrytosolvethisproblemeffectively.5.1RaisingAwarenessFirstofall,raiseourawarenessaboutthisissue.Manypeopledon’tknowthefactthatdifferentpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundsmayhavequitedifferentvalues.Somepeoplejustassumethatotherpeoplemustthinkandbehaveinthesamewayastheydo.Manybarriersoccurfrequentlyduringtheprocessofcross-culturalcommunicationbecauseofthisimprovidentview.Therefore,weshouldbearinmindtherealityofculturaldifferencesifwewanttounderstandotherpeoplebetterwhocomefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.Thisistheveryfirststepforustoavoidunnecessarymisunderstandingsduringourinteractionwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures.5.2MakingPracticeSecondly,doingpracticeisthebestwaytoknowothercountry’scultureandhelpusavoidbarriersduringthecommunication.Forinstance,we’dbetterreadmoreEnglishnovels,listentoEnglishsongs,orwatchEnglishmoviesasoftenaswecan.ThefinalgoalofthesepracticesistohelpusformawayofEnglishthinkingandtohaveadeeperunderstandingofforeigncultures,whichisanessentialfactortoinfluencethesuccessofinter-culturalcommunication.Besides,graspingorevencreatingeverypossiblechancetocommunicatewithforeigners.Onlyaftermuchpracticecantheproblemofbarriersberaisedandsolvedsuccessfully.5.3ChangingtheViewingAngleFinally,anotherstrategyyoucanuseistopracticeseeingyourculturethewayotherswhoarenotapartofitseeit.Foreignobserversareusuallyfarfromobjective,buttheyoftennoticethingsthatyouhavenevernoticed.Theywereabletoseethingsthatthenativestookforgranted.Whenwetrytolookuponthingsfromtheirpointofview,weprobablycomeacrossalotofnewideasandseizesomeeffectivewaystosolvetheproblemofsocialpragmaticfailures.That’sthereasonwhysomeofthemostinsightfulwritersabouttheAmericancharacterandAmericanculturehavebeenEuropeans.ChapterSixConclusionLanguageisapartofcultureandplaysaveryimportantroleinit.Asculturesarediverse,solanguagesarediverse.Itisonlynaturalthanthatwithdifferenceinculturesanddifferenceinlanguages,difficultiesoftenariseincommunicatingbetweenculturesandacrosscultures.Understandingisnotalwayseasy.Learningalanguage,infact,isinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Inthisglobalworld,thedistancebetweenpeopleisshorteningbecauseoftheinternationallanguageEnglish,buthowcanwetrulymasterEnglish?AgoodwaytodevelopourEnglishistoexplorespecificEnglishcultureindepth.TherearesomeofthemainculturaldifferencesbetweenChineseandAmericansinlanguageuse.Basedonthesedifferences,InordertoachieveaCross-culturalcommunicationcompetence,wehavetolearntoapproachourownculturemoreanalyticallyandtobecautiouswhenweareinterpretingothercultures.Buttoday,whatchildrenwereimpartedbyteachersismainlylinguisticusageofaforeignlanguageandtheknowledgeofculturewasoverlooked.Inordertomas