基本概念习题等多个文件-society

10Society,culture,andlanguage

洪波Content1.Thedilemmathatteachersandlinguistbothfaced2.Thesocialsciences3.Definitionofsociology4.Theevolutionofsociology5.Thedefinitionofanthropology6.FamousfiguresinanthropologyDilemma(左右为难):Thedilemmathatteachersandlinguistbothfaced

linguisticformspeopleandcountryIftheyconcetratetoohardonlingguisticformsandforgetthepeoplewhousetheformsinordinarycommunication,theydistorttherealityoflanguageuse.linguisticformspeopleandcountryIftheyovermphasizepeopleandcountryanddisregardthedetailsoflinguisticformstheirteachingtendstoesuperficialandunserviceable.teachlanguagesocialcontextThedelemmareflectstheissuethatintheoreticallinguisticshasproducedaseparationoftheareasstudiedby“linguisticsproper”(‘micro-linguistics’,‘linguisticlinguistics’)fromthestudyoflanguageinthesocialcontext.wecannotteachalanguagewithoutcomingfacetofacewithsocialcontextfactorswhichhavebearingonlanguageandlanguagelearning.Thelanguageandsocietyareinmanywayscloselylinked.

ThesocialsciencesManydisciplinesareconcernedwithaspectsofsociety,forexample,history,law,economics,andpoliticalscience.Themostgeneralstudiesaresociology,ethnology,ethnography,socialandculturalanthropology,andsociolinguistics.社会学产生的历史背景:第一本以社会学为题目的书是19世纪中期的英国哲学家HerbertSpencer,（18201903）赫伯特·斯宾塞所著，以工业革命为先导的18世纪的经济变革，使欧洲从过去的礼俗社会变成工业社会。奥古斯特·孔德，开创了社会学这一学科，被尊称为“社会学之父”社会学（Sociology）这个词就是他首先提出并使用的，从而使他成为资产阶级社会学的创始人。SociologyDefinition1)Itobservedandreflectduponthesocietiesandgroupsinwhichtheylive.Itisamodernscience.2)Asascienceitissomewhatyoungerthanpsychologyandanearcontemporaryoflinguistics.3)Ithasarisenasaself-examinatinofmanintheever-changinginduitrialworldwhichconstitutestheenvironmentinwhichhelives.

Evolutionofsociology1)Inthefirststageofitsgrowthfromabout1850to1900,influencedbythesocialphilosophiesofComte,Spencer,andMarxwhocanbeconsideredthe'fathers'ofsociologyandanthropology,itbeganwithambitionstoembracethewholelifeandhistoryofhumansociety.2)Towardstheendofthecentury,inasecondstageofitsgrowth,sociologydevelopeditsowncharacteristicapproachtoallstudiesofsociety:law,history,politics,religionandsoon.3)Sociologygrewintheinterwaryearsasanacademicdisciplinewithchairsintheuniversities,professionalassociations,andlearnedjournals.4)AfterWorldWarװ

,asaresultofthegrowinginfluenceandimportanceofthesocialsciencesduringthewaryears,sociologycontinuedtogrowandexpand.5)Arecenttrendinsociologyreflectsalackofconfidenceintheadvancesofscienceandtechnologyandasearchformeaninginthestudyofsimplepersonalrelationships.Concernedprimarilywithface-to-faceinteractionandtheprocessofunderstandingininterpersonalcommunicationineverydaytalk.社会学发展阶段早期发展1850---1900早期社会学是指产生和形成期的社会学。这个时期的社会学主要形成了社会学发展史上的三大传统，即孔德的实证主义社会学、韦伯的理解社会学和马克思主义批判社会学。中期发展社会学的中期发展是指孔德、马克思、迪尔凯姆和韦伯之后到20世纪40年代，社会学在世界各国的传播与发展。19世纪70年代以前，社会学只存在于它的发源地欧洲少数国家,从70年代中期开始，首先传入美国，然后世界各主要国家或者通过美国，或者直接从欧洲把社会学引入本土，直到第二次世界大战爆发，是欧洲社会学在世界各国的传播与发展时期。当代发展当代社会学是指第二次世界大战以后迄今的社会学。这是社会学研究日益深入和不断完善、社会学知识的分工和专业化程度日趋严密的时期，也是社会学在世界范围内获得普遍传播和发展的时期。AnthropologyDefinition:1)Anthropologyiswiderthansociology.2)Thedescriptionandexplanationofsimilariesanddifferencesamonghumanethnicgroups.3)Anthropologyincludesthestudyofphysicalvariationsamonghumanraces.Thedistinctionbetween'social'and'cultual'anthropology.a)Britishanthropologistsundertheinfluencehaveviewedanthropologyasascienceofsocialstructureandfunctionorasasociologyofprimitivesocirties.b)Americananthropologiesregardedanthropologyasoneofadescriptionandinterpretationofprimitivecultures.Twoancestriesofanthropology.1)Itisintimatelylinkedwithphilosophicalspeculationsonmankind'sorigi,diversityanddevelopment.2)Itssecondoriginliesintheethnographicreportson'primitive'and'savage'peoplebroughtbacktoEuropebyEropeanwhiteconquerors,traders,travellers,andmissionaries.法兰兹·鲍亚士Boas鲍亚士对于人类学具有不朽的影响。所有人类学家如今都接受鲍亚士对经验论及他的方法论文化相对论的支持。文化相对论这是对文化人类学的研究态度和文化评价。要求研究者客观地看待被研究的对象。一般采用文化主位研究法，从被研究者的角度来看待被研究者的文化。ContributionsofBoas1)Boasdemandedthateachsociety(anditslanguage)bestudiedonitsowntermsandinitsownhistoricalsettingbythebestempiricalmeansavailable,aviodingspeculativeexplanationsabouttheevolutionofmankind.(P197line1)2)Boasinsistedthataculturebestudiedinsuchawaythattheanthropolgistcametounderstanditfromtheperspectiveofthenativeparticipation.(P197line11)马林诺夫斯基(BronislawMalinowski)1)Acultureshouldbetreatedascoherentsysteminwhichdifferentpartshavecertainfunctions;andbothapproacheshavebeendescibedas'functionalism'2)Aculturemustmeetthreesetsofneeds:a)Thebasicneedsoftheindividual.b)theinstrumentalneedsofthesociety.c)Thesymbolicandintegrativeneedsofboththeindividualandsociety.功能主义和结构主义MalinowskiandRadcliffe-Brown马林诺夫斯基(Malinowski)是功能派的代表人物。这派认为，解释人类学事实的唯一途径是说明它在一定文化中正在发挥的功能，因此人类学研究的目标是把握文化整体与各个部分之间的有机联系，历史的比较方法意义不大。相反，拉德克利夫-布朗(A.R.Radcliffe-Brown)是结构主义的倡导者。这派认为人类学研究的目的在于揭示超乎经验事实的系统的本质。LanguageinanthropologyandsociologyAdevelopedlanguageisauniqueanddistinctivehumantrait,andhumansocietyisahigherleveloforganizationofbehaviourthanmerelyinstinctiveoranimalbehaviour.AnthropologyLanguagecanbestudiedasaself-containedsystemandrequiresanexpertiseofitsown.Butthestudyofalanguageconstantlydemandsaninterpretationofsociallydeterminedmeaning.Thestudyofdifferentaspectsofculturerequiresanunderstandingoftheverbalaspectsofthatculture.Interactionbetweenthetwodisciplinelinguisticanthropology语言人类学anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学relationsbetweenlanguageandculturefromthepointofanthropologydealingwithlanguageproblemsinanthropologicalresearchGreatfiguresSapirSapirisdescribedastheoriginatorofmodernAmericanlinguistics.1)Hearguesthatlanguagedeterminesthoughtandworldview,cultureandthoughtaredependentuponlanguage.(p202)2)Heinsiststhatsuchconceptsas'race','culture',and'language'shouldnotbeconfusedoridentifiedwitheachother.Inhislaterwritingsheexpressedhimselfmorepositivelyaboutthisrelationshipthanintheearlierquotation.Bloomfield(1887-1949)TheprincipalrepresentativeofAmericandescriptivelinguistics.HeissuchalandmarkfigureinthehistoryofAmericanlinguisticsthattheperiodbetween1933and1950isknownasBloomfieldEra,inwhichAmericandescriptivelinguisticsformallycameintobeingandreacheditsprimedevelopment.Hisresearchincludedfieldstudiesinanthropologicallinguistics.Inhisearlierworkheinsistedonacloselinkbetweenlinguisticsandethnology.(p203paragraph2line3)TheWhorfianhypothesisLanguagelearnersareonlytoowellawereofthefactthatcertainaspectsofanewlanguage-itemsofvocabulary,orgrammaticalfeatures-oftenimplyconceptsforwhichthenativelanguagehasnoequivalent.Contrastiveanalysisisfoundedonsuchcomparisons.Onelanguagehasseparatevocabularyitemsforconceptswhichareleftundifferentiatedinanotherlanguage.(p203paragraph3line7)萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说语言塑造了我们的思维模式，相应地，不同的语言表达决定了人们认识世界方式的不同。从这个观点出发，可以得到两点认识：一方面，语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构性差异越大，反应出对于世界的认识越不同。因此这个假说也称为“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。Overthelasttwoorthreedecadesseveralinvestigatorshavetestedthehepothesiswithconflictingresultsbystudyingdifferentaspectsoflanguageinrelationtoextra-linguisticfactorsindifferentcultures.(p2061.2.3.)对教育学的启示：Forlanguagepedagogy,thesestudieshavebeenextremelyimportant.Theyhaveledtothewidespreadconvictionthatthelanguagelearnershouldnotonlystudytheculturalcontextbutthatheshouldbemadeawareoftheinteractionbetweenlanguageandculture.Thecontextofsituation(语言环境),acentualconceptinthedevelopmentoflinguisticsinBritainbyFirthwhoacknowledgeshisindebtednesstoMalinowski.(p209paragraph1line4)Descriptivelinguistics（描写语言学）,accordingtoFirth,is'anautonomousgroupofrelateddisciplines-suchasphonetics,phonology,grammar,lexicography（词典编辑学）,semantics,andwhatmaybecalledthe"sociologyoflanguage''(p209paragraph2line4)ThebasicunitoflinguisticsforFirthisthelanguageevent,andthecontextofsituationbringsitintorelationto:(a)therelevantfeaturesofparticipants:persons,personalities1)theverbalinteractionoftheparticpants2)thenon-verbalinteractionoftheparticipants;(b)therelevantobjects;