研究生英语课文unit3cultural

Unit3CulturalPerspectivesIln’estpasproper?MyFrenchsister-in-law'squestionfloatedintheair.Ipretendednottohear,waitingformywifetoanswer.Shewasaskingaboutourtwo-and-a-half-year-oldson,whohadjustscamperedbyher,chasingaballonthebeachinNormandy.Iwasn'texactlysurewhatshewasasking.Heisn'tclean?Whatcouldshemeanbythat?Whenmywifeanswered,itbecameclear.Itwasaboutthediaperhewaswearing,andthefactthathewasnotyettoilettrained.wasn'thegettingalittleoldfordiapers?Thisconversation,andtheimplicationthatourAmericantoilettrainingpracticesweresomehowinadequate,botheredme.Iknewtherewereculturaldifferencesinplay,buttheonlyexplanationIcouldcomeupwithinthemomentwasasimplisticnotionaboutinformality,ordifferenttraditions.Truthfully,IwasstruckmorebyhowbotheredIwas.Myemotionsweretriggered,andIcouldn'tfigureoutwhy.Later,IcameacrossacomparisonofthedifferencesbetweenFrenchandAmericanchild-rearingpractices.TheFrenchperceivethathumankind-allpeople-containsbothgoodandevil,andthatchildrenthereforeneedtheguidinghandofrationaladultsinordertopreparethemtoparticipateproperlyinsociety,tobringoutthepositiveinthemandtocontroltheirinnatenegativetendencies.Childrenmustfollowtherules,sotospeak.Americans,incontrast,tendtoviewhumankindasbasicallygood,andareconsequentlymoretolerantofchildrenfindingtheirownway,learningfrommistakes,trustingthemtodowhatisright.Whathelpedmemostinthiscomparisonwastherealizationthatthefundamentaldifferencesinviewsbetweenmysister-in-lawandmecouldbeexplainedintermsofculturalperspectives,thattheseweresubmergeddeepwithin,andthatitwasnotreallyamatterofrightandwrongbetweenthetwoofus.IquestionwhetherIcouldhavecometothisunderstandingbyrelyingonmyownexperience.Ineededothers’views.Perspectivescanbepresentedasacombinationofperceptions,values,beliefs,andattitudes.Theyaretheexplicitandimplicitmeaningssharedbymembersoftheculture,manifestedinproductsandpractices.Thesemeaningsreflectmembers'perceptionsoftheworld,thebeliefsandvaluesthattheyhold,andthenorms,expectations,andattitudesthattheybringtopractices.Tonametheperspectivesthatunderliepracticesistoanswerquestion,whydothepeopleofthisculturedothingsinthewaythey.Perspectivescanbetangible.Perceptions,beliefs,values,andattitudescanbeexplicitlystatedinoralorwrittenform.Theseexplicitperspectivesareexpressedthroughsayings,proverbs,creeds,proclamations,myths,mottos,principles,guidelines,missionstatements,scholarlystudies,culturalstudies,orotherexplicitformsofexpression.Theseovertperspectives,thesharedpublicoutlooks,guideourpractices.Asanexample,considertheperspectiveof “theAmericanDrea m”-aculturalperspectivethatreflectsabeliefthatanyone canachievefameandfortuneintheUnitedStatesthroughhardwork,self-reliance,andsacrifice.Thisbeliefisbaseduponvaluesofequality,individualism achievement,competition,andmaterialism.Turn.Derivefromaculturalperceptionthatpeoplepossessfreewillandcancontroltheirdestiniesandtheenvironment,andthatthefutureismoreimportantthanthepast.Attitudesofcompetitiveness,ambition,determination,self-centeredness,andresiliencefollow.Accordingly,.culturehasmanypracticesthatreflectthepursuitoftheAmericanDream,includingestablishingcertainrelationships,developingacareer,andacquiringwealth,status,orrespect.Productsaccumulatewithsuchpractices:possessions,goods,capital,status,andrecognition.Manyexplicitperspectivesarefoundinthehistoryofacultureandinsocialandculturalstudiesandcommentaries.Thehistoriesofpoliticaleconomic,religious,educationalandotherformalinstitutionsbothreflectandpropagateculturalperspectives.Forexample,thebeliefthat"everymanispresumedinnocentuntilprovenguilty"pervadesthejudicialsystemintheUnitedStates,andhasitsoriginsintheAmericanRevolutionasaconsciousresponsetothepoliticalinstitutionsinEurope.Likewise,historybooksarefilledwithstoriesof"self-mademen,""ruggedindividualists”who“pulledthemselvesupbytheirownbootstraps”,“lefttheirpastsbehind",andwentfrom"ragstoriches"toattaintheAmericanDream,proving",ineffect,that"Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.”(DependingontheAmericansyoutalkto,thisperspectivemaybeseenasmythorreality.)Perspectivesarethusexplicit,butatthesametimetheycanbetacitoroutsideawareness,Membersofaculturecarryoutpractices,butwhenaskedtoexplainthem,theyoftencannotspecifywhytheyengageinthesepractices;theyfrequentlyreply,"that'sjustthewayitis"or"we'realwaysdoingitthisway."Thisisnottosaythatpeopleareunabletospecifyperspectives,butratherthatpeopletendnottobeawareofthem.Theytakethemforgranted.Themaxim"Ifyouwanttoknowaboutwater,don'taskafish."oftenusedininterculturalcircles.makesthispoint.Eventhoughmostculturalperspectivesaretacit,theycanbebroughttothesurfaceandmadeexplicit,asanthropologists,amongothers,havedemonstrated.Itcandemandasignificantefforttouncoverthetacitperspectivesthatgovernpractices.Whilethisdiscoveryispossible,itisquestionablewhetheralltacitperspectivescaninfactbesurfaced.Some(ormany,whoknows)remainimprintedinthedepthsofourreptilian andmammalianbrains,beyondthereachoflanguage.Atthemostexplicitlevel,perspectivesareexpressedmostoftenasfeelingsthatareassociatedwithattitudes,revealedinthewordsordeedsofpractices.Forthemostpart,thesefeelingsareeitherpositiveornegative("ThispersonisnotarrivingwhenIexpected.IfeelOKaboutthis."orIdon'tfeelOKaboutthis.")Theattitudesenclosevalues,whichcanbemadeexplicit.("Idon’tfeelOKaboutthis,becauseit,snotrightforsomeonetodothis;anormalpersonwouldn ’tdothis."Valuesarecloselylinkedtobeliefs,whatweholdtobetrueorfalse,whichalsocanbemadeexplicit,withreflection.("Ibelievethattimeisprecious.")Weshouldbaseonperceptions,andthesearealmostalwaystacit,althoughtheytoocanbebroughttoawareness,uponreflectionorresearch.("Iperceivetimeasasubstance,asmaterial:itcanbemeasured,quantifiedandhandledlikeanyothercommodity."Issuesrelatedtotime,especiallypunctuality,illustratetheexplicitandtacitnatureofperspectives.IfI’mwaitingforsomeonetoarriveataprearrangedtime,Ibegintofeelvaguelyuncomfortableastheexpectedhourpasses.Themoretimeelapses,themoreirritatedIbecome.Ittakes aconsciousefforttoremindmyselfthatmyperceptionoftimeandthebeliefsandvaluesassociatedwithitareinfullforce.ItellmyselfthatIneedtodropmybeliefthatthepersonIawaitpossessesdeep,irreversiblecharacterflaws.Tomovethroughtheemotionsandattitudestodiscovervalues,beliefs,andperceptionstakeswork,especiallyiftheemotionsarestrong.Strongemotionalreactionsgenerallysignalthatanimportantculturalperspectivehasbeentouched,calledintoquestion,orthreatenedinsomeway.Onewayinwhichperceptionsarecommonlydescribedinculturalstudiesisas"worldview".Literally,worldviewiswhatitsuggests:perceptionsofallthatsurroundsone.Theassumptionunderlying thenotionofworldviewisthatofaunified.sharedoutlookontheworldWorldviewisusedmostoftentodescribethefundamentalperceptionssharedbymembersofaculture.Perceptions,inotherwords,aretheorganizingelementinculture.Beliefs,values,attitudes,practices,andproductsfollow.Perhapsthemostobviousillustrationofworldviewsisreligiousinstitutions.Religionsproposeperspectivesonhumankind,deity,nature,andtheuniverse.Theseviewsengenderbeliefs,values,andattitudes,whicharemanifestedinthesetsofspecificpracticesdevelopedbymembersofthereligion.Iftheyadheretothesepractices,memberswillleadaproperwayoflife.Whendiscussingperspectives,weneedtorecognizethattherearetwokinds:emicandetic.Emicperspectivesarethosearticulatedbymembersoftheculturetoexplainthemselvesandtheirculture,whileeticperspectivesarethoseofoutsiderstotheculture,whousetheirowncriteriatoexplaintheothers'culture.Eticperspectivesincludethoseofvisitorstotheculture,thecriteriatheyusetodescribeandexplainwhattheyencounter,aswellascategoriesforcross-culturaldescriptionandanalysisestablishedbyanthropologistsandotherculturalresearcherstodescribemanycultures.Eticperspectivestherefore,provideframeworkstodescribe,analyze,andexplainaculturefromtheoutside.Eacheticcategorycarriesassumptionsaboutthenatureofculture,anditisimportanttobringouttheseassumptions.Emicexplanationsareperspectivesthatmembersofthecultureusetodescribeorexplaintheirownwayoflife.Theseperspectivesdonotnecessarily correspondtoeticcategories,nordoestheterminologythatthememberusefortheirexplanations.Whenasked,membersmayeasilyexpressthereasonsforculturalproductsandpractices.Or,giventhatmanyfundamentalculturalperspectivesareoutsideawareness,likethesubmergedbulkoftheculturaliceberg, membersmayhavedifficultyfindingwordtofullyexplainthem,justasIhadnoexplanationonAmericantoilettrainingpractices.Aforeignlanguageteacherillustratestheinsider/outsiderperspectivesonthesametouchingbehaviorsseenfromtwodifferentcultures,hisnativeCameroonandthe.studentsinhisFrenchclass.InmyFrenchIclass,wewerereviewinggreetings.Aftertheusualbonjour,salut,etc.,Iintroducedhandshaking.Iaskedthemhowoftentheyshake handswiththeirfriends.Theanswerwasrarelytonever.IthenexplainedtothemhowfriendsinCameroonwouldshakehandsseveraltimesduringthesameday.Whenevertheywouldmeet,theywouldshakehands.Studentssaidtheyreallybeuncomfortabletobetouched.WeexploredthepossiblereasonswhyCamerooniansshakehandssomuch,withthemainonebeingthelimitedpersonalspacepeopleallowthemselvesinCameroon.Tomakethingsworse,Itoldthemthatfriends,brotherssisterswalkhandinhand-literally-inCameroon,withoutthathavinganyconnotation.Whentheyheardthis,moststudentswereshocked,exceptforaKorean-Americanstudent.HesaidthatonatriptoSouthKoreahenoticedpeopleholdinghandseverywhere,andhethoughteverybodywasgay.Hesaidherefusedtoholdhandswithhiscousins,andtheythoughthewasjustaweirdAmericankid.Studentsadmittedthey'dtryholdinghandsonlyiftheyhadto.AsaCameroonianlivinginthiscountry,IhavenoticedthatpeopleintheUnitedStatesdon'ttoucheachotheralot.TherareoccasionsthatIhaveobservedpeopletouchingothersarewhenexpressingapprovalorsatisfactionforajobwelldone;atapontheshoulder(usuallyfromasuperior/coach,etc.)whensealingadeal(handshake);forafarewell(hug):friendsgivingeachotherahugtocomfortoneanother.Ihavealsoobservedthatholdinghandsoccursinthefollowingsituations:parentsholdyoungerkidswhencrossingroads:loversholdhandsasasignofintimateaffection.Althoughnotexplicit,whentwoindividualsofthesamegenderareseenholdingha