the rise and fall of talcott parsons villanova university：帕森斯的维拉诺瓦大学的兴衰

TheriseandfallofTalcottParsonsSociologyatmid-centuryUnitII:3fundamentalmethodologicalproblemsSociologicaltheoryattemptstoshowhowparticularcausalinfluencesfittogether.Functionaltheory(Parsons):arguesthattheyfittogetherintoanormativesystemConflicttheory(Mills)arguesthattheyfittogetherasaconflictofinterests.Theoryconstructiontheorists(Stinchcombe)arguethattheorymustconnecttodata.Ihavearguedthatfeedbacksarethekeytoalltheseproblems.ReasonsforParsons’rise1930-1950MuchofChicagosociologywasatheoretical.TheEuropeantheorist(especiallyDurkheim,MarxandWeber)werelargelyignored.ChicagocontinuedtodominatetheassociationwhenmostPh.D’sweretrainedelsewhere.Parsonstrainedaverylargenumberofimportanttheorists(includingseveralrecentASApresidents,suchasSmelser.)Reasonsforhisfall1960-1980Histheorywasmainlyanelaborateconceptualscheme–alanguage.Itwasrootedin1950’ssensethatthesocialstructurewasfunctional,andthatAmericanvaluesepitomizedmodernprogress.Aboveall,itdidnotsustainenoughinterestingandimportantempiricalresearch.ThelinkageoftheorytodataTheoryandempiricalresearchhavetobecloselytiedtoeachother.Theorizingwhichisnotconnectedtofruitfulempiricaldataanalysisisoftendismissedas“grandtheory.”Researchwhichisnotconnectedtogeneraltheoreticalideasisoftendismissedas“abstractedempiricism.”“Grandtheory:”thecriticismsofMillsandMertonMerton(oneofParsons’students)andMillseachmadethechargethatParsoniantheorywasgrandtheoryinthesenseofempty,armchairshufflingofcategories.Mertondefendedtheoriesofthemiddlerange.Millsdefendedthe“sociologicalimagination.”BothwereatColumbia,whichbecameonecenterofempiricalanalysis.“Abstractedempiricism”or“number-crunching:”therationalefortheoryButbothofthem–aswellasthebulkofpracticingsociologistsrecognizedthatthedisciplinefragmentswithoutgeneraltheory.Differentsociologistsstudydifferenttopicsusingdifferentmethods.Parsons’concernforsystemandfornormsresonatedwithmanysociologists3ElementsofParsonian“Structural-functionalism”TheStructureofSocialAction(1937)developedthenotionofvoluntarism.TheSocialSystem(1951)developedtheideasofsocialsystemsasself-maintainingandnormativelyintegrated.Parsonsbooksandarticlesofthe1950’sdevelopedthefour-functionparadigmofasystem.#1VoluntarismVoluntarismisthethesisthatallhumanactionismotivatedbysocializedvaluesandgovernedbysocialnorms.Itwasdirectedagainstbehaviorism,positivism,SocialDarwinism,andeconomicrationalactionmodels(“utilitarianism”).Parsonsconstructedaconceptualargumentthatsocialorderisnotpossiblewithoutcommonvalues.HearguedthatthemostpowerfulempiricalworkofDurkheimandWeberanalyzedthesevalues.RehabilitationofDurkheimDurkheim’sapproachhadbeendismissedasatheoryof“groupmind.”Buttheexistenceofinstitutionalizednormsisnotjustasenseof“groupness.”Forexample,aphysicianisconstrainedbylaw,bycolleaguesandbypatientexpectations.TranslationandinterpretationofWeberParsonstranslatedanumberofWeber’sworks,andhedevelopedthenotionthatactionhasavalue-component.Parsonsexemplifiedthisbythenotionoftheimportanceofreligiontotheriseofcapitalism.Weber’sanalysisoflaw,economics,politicsandsciencealsoillustratedinstitutionalizednormativesystems.Comparisonofstructural-functionalismwithChicagoVoluntarismformalizedmuchexistinganalysisoftermssuchasconformity,norms,sanctions,interaction,role,value,oranomie,whichhadbeenusedinaninformalandunsystematicway.(comparethepassagefromParsonsthatMills“translates”onpp.235-6ofOneWorld).Isthereamoreusefulconsolidationoftheseconcepts?Isoneneeded?#2Modernizationin

TheSocialSystemTheSocialSystemwaspublishedjustasabout100newcountriesemergedinthe20thcentury.Parsonsarguedthatthecommonexpectationsofthemembersofthesocietyweresocializedandinstitutionalized.Theonlyothersolutionto“theproblemoforder”isnakedcoercion.Institutionsareorganizedaroundfunctionalneeds.Rolestructuresmakethebehaviorofonerolepartnersanctionsandrewardsforothers.Anomieorotherfailureofsocialfunctionstobeperformedleadtofurthersocialcontrols.ModernvaluesAcentralconcernforParsonswasthetransformationthathadoccurredinEuropeinthepreviouscenturiesandthatwasseepingtheworldafterWWII.Parsonssawthisprocessasrequiringavaluesystemthathaddeveloped,MostcharacteristicoftheUnitedStates,includingseparationofchurchandstate,humanrights,freeenterprise,andinclusivecitizenship–whatDurkheimcalled“organicsolidarity.”ThePatternVariablesSpecificallyhedistinguished5dimensionsofanevaluation:Universalism------------------ParticularismAchievement---------------------AscriptionNeutrality-------------------------AffectivitySpecificity------------------------DiffusenessSelf----------------------------------CollectivityTheexampleoftheprofessionsIngeneral,themovementistowarduniversalism,achievement,neutrality,specificity(specialization)andself(individualism)But,forexample,theorientationoftheprofessionsweretocollectivity.Theprofessionsareacontrolsystem.Itisnotthatdoctorsarelessself-interestedthanbusinessmen;theyareself-interestedinadifferentway.ThefunctionalmodelofstratificationandinequalityThefunctionalmodelwasdominantinthemid-twentiethcentury.Itarguedthatinequalityisfunctionallynecessarytomotivatetrainingandattracttalenttoimportantpositions,andthatthereforeallsocietiesarestratified,andreductionofstratificationwouldmakeeveryoneworseoff.Parsonswelcomedmostformsofclassandgenderinequality,fordifferentreasons,althoughherejectedJimCrow.“Merelyempirical”questionsParsonscouldeasilygrantthattherewereideologies,interests,advantagedgroups,anomie,privileges,andvalueconflicts,buthetendedtodismissthemasmerelyempiricalquestions,whichplayednotroleinthetheory.#3TheFour-functionParadigmThisworkwasconsolidatedinthefour-functionParadigmFrom1950-1978,hearguedthatallsystemshavetosatisfy4essentialfunctions,whichherepresentedasthe“agileboxes:”AGILAdaptation

AGoalAttainmentGILatencyLIntegrationSystemsThroughoutthe1930’sand’40’stherehadbeenagrowthofsystemstheoryDealingwithstructuresofinterrelatedpartsinengineering,biology,computerscience,informationtheory,andadministration.Thesestressedthehomeostaticpropertiesofnegativefeedback,asinathermostat.TemperatureFurnaceCut-off+-RelationofParsons’systemstosystemstheoryThevariouskindsofsystemstheoryallowonetosimulatethebehaviorofacomplexstructure.Parsons’theoryresonatedwiththistheory.Itmadethemaintainingofgoalstates(functions;values)controlledbythevaluecommitments,instilledinthe“latency”subsystem,thecoreofsocialstructure.TherationaleofAGILParsonsarguedthatsocial,psychologicalandculturalstructuresarefunctionallydifferentiatedTheyneedtodealwithanexternalenvironment,andtheyneedtomaintaintheirinternalintegrity.Theideaofthe4functionsBothwithrespecttotheoutsideandwithrespecttotheinside,thereisaneedbothtoaccumulatefurtherresources,andtomobilizeandusetheresourcesonehas.Accumulatingandusingupresourceswithrespecttotheoutsideandtheinsidegenerate4kindsoffunctions:Thefourfunctions:AccumulatingresourcesfromtheexternalenvironmentwascalledAdaptation:AUsingresources

withregardtotheoutsidewascalledGoalAttainment:GUsingresourcestomaintaininternalintegritywascalledIntegration:IAccumulatingresourcesformaintaininginternalintegritywascalledLatency:L

The4functionsinSocietyHearguedthattheeconomyisorientedtoaccumulatingresourceswithrespecttotheexternal(physical)environment.AThepoliticalsystemusesthoseresourceswithrespecttotheoutside:G.Thelegalsystemisorientedtomaintaininginternalintegration:IThelatencysystemdoesthesocializationandinstillsthevaluecommitmentsthatallowinternalintegration.LatencyThestressininternalcontrolswasParsons’distinctivecontributionHearguedthatthefamily,education,andchurcheswerethemaininstitutionalcomplexescreatingvaluecommitments.Muchofhisworkconcernedtherelationsbetweenthemandtheculturalsystem,thepersonalitysystem,andthelegalsystem.SocialEvolutionParsons’analysisofsocialevolutionattemptedtoshowtheprocessbywhichclassdivisions,theseparationoftheeconomyfromthestate,andtheseparationofchurchandstateoccur.Theseareallviewedasprocessesoffunctionaldifferentiation.Andallofthem,forParsons,areenabledbyintegrativenormativecontrolsystems,thatoperatelikethermostats.TheFour-functionParadigmThisworkwasconsolidatedinthefour-functionParadigmFrom1950-1978,hearguedthatallsystemshavetosatisfy4essentialfunctions,whichherepresentedasthe“agileboxes:”AGILAdaptation

AGoalAttainmentGILatencyLIntegrationSystemsThroughoutthe1930’sand’40’stherehadbeenagrowthofsystemstheoryDealingwithstructuresofinterrelatedpartsinengineering,biology,computerscience,informationtheory,andadministration.Thesestressedthehomeostaticpropertiesofnegativefeedback,asinathermostat.TemperatureFurnaceCut-off+-RelationofParsons’systemstosystemstheoryThevariouskindsofsystemstheoryallowonetosimulatethebehaviorofacomplexstructure.Parsons’theoryresonatedwiththistheory,butithadnodirectconnectionwithit,andneverledtoquantitativesimulationsandpredictions.TherationaleofAGILParsonsarguedthatsocial,psychologicalandculturalstructuresarefunctionallydifferentiatedTheyneedtodealwithanexternalenvironment,andtheyneedtomaintaintheirinternalintegrity.Theideaofthe4functionsBothwithrespecttotheoutsideandwithrespecttotheinside,thereisaneedbothtoaccumulatefurtherresources,andtomobilizeandusetheresourcesonehas.Accumulatingandusingupresourceswithrespecttotheoutsideandtheinsidegenerate4kindsoffunctions:Thefourfunctions:AccumulatingresourcesfromtheexternalenvironmentwascalledAdaptation:AUsingresources

withregardtotheoutsidewascalledGoalAttainment:GUsingresourcestomaintaininternalintegritywascalledIntegration:IAccumulatingresourcesformaintaininginternalintegritywascalledLatency:L

The4functionsinSocietyHearguedthattheeconomyisorientedtoaccumulatingresourceswithrespecttotheexternal(physical)environment.AThepoliticalsystemusesthoseresourceswithrespecttotheoutside:G.Thelegalsystemisorientedtomaintaininginternalintegration:IThelatencysystemdoesthesocializationandinstillsthevaluecommitmentsthatallowinternalintegration.LatencyThestressininternalcontrolswasParsons’distinctivecontributionHearguedthatthefamily,education,andchurcheswerethemaininstitutionalcomplexescreatingvaluecommitments.Muchofhisworkconcernedtherelationsbetweenthemandtheculturalsystem,thepersonalitysystem,andthelegalsystem.GeneralmediaAdaptationMoneyEconomyAGoalAttainment

PowerGPoliticalsystemFamiliesetc.LValuecommitmentLatencyILaw.InfluenceIntegrationParsonsreviewofMillsThereviewofMills’PowerEliteandMills’discussionofParsonsgiveaclearideaofthedebatesatmid-century.ParsonssuggestedthatMillshasadefective,zero-sumconceptofpower,andthathewantstogetridofdifferencesinpoweraltogether.MillsanalysisofpowerInabout10books,ofwhichThePowerElitewasthemostpopular,Millsarguedthatoldwealth,theheadsofthegiantcorporationsandtheexecutivebranchofgovernment,andconstitutedanelite.Careerpathsoftentookthemfromonetoanother;commoninstitutionsunifiedthem,and,Millsargued,theyoftenhadandpursuedintereststhatweredifferentfromandantagonistictothoseoftherestofthepopulace.Weshallexaminesuchargumentsnextweek.Zero-sumandnon-zerosumThetermsaretakenfromgametheoryinwhichtheoutcomesforseveralpersonsaredependentontheirjointactions.Gametheorydistinguishescompetitive,zero-sumgamesinwhichthereisscarcity,sothatifonepersongetsmore,othersgetless.Fromnon-zero-sumcooperativegamesinwhichallplayersmaygetmore,orallmaygetless.Examplesofnon-zero-sumgamesIftwopeoplearegoingthroughanintersection,andtheybothhavetodecidewhethertostoporgorightahead,thereareminordifferencesdependingwhogoesthroughfirst,andminorinconveniencesiftheybothstop,Butthema