2016年1月23日雅思阅读考情回顾

2016123日雅思阅读考情一、考试时间：2016123日（周六）Classifyingsocieties，人类部落社会的发展阶段。201339EuropeanRainforest，简述了欧洲雨林保护的进程，结构类似，可作为参考。第二篇FossilfilesthePaleobiologydatabase.化石数据库是否能够预测生物多样性的未来。剑九第一套第三篇Thehistoryofthetortoise，同样从化石方面讲述了Assessingtherisk201383日，20112122010119日考过。对于药物风险的评估，相似话题可参考剑六第四套第一篇Doctoringsales。Passage1:Classifyingsocieties，人类部落社会的发展阶段Passage2:FossilfilesthePaleobiologydatabase，化石数据库Passage3:Assessingtherisk，风险评估题型分布与题型分布与Questions1-DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassage1?Inboxes1-7onyouranswersheet,TRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformationFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationonthisThere’slittleeconomicdifferencebetweenmembersofaThefarmersofatribegrowawiderangeofOnesettlementismoreimportantthananyothersettlementsinaAmember’sstatusinachiefdomisdeterminedbyhowmuchlandTherearepeoplewhocraftgoodsinThekingkeepstheorderofastatebyusinganBureaucraticofficersreceivehighersalariesthanotherQuestions8-13AnswerthequestionsChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachWriteyouranswersinboxes8-13onyouranswerWhataremadeattheclanworkWhatistheotherwayoflifefortribesbesidessettledHowareÇatalhöyük’shousingunitsWhatdoesachiefgivetohissubjectsasrewardsbesidescraftedWhatisthelargestpossiblepopulationofaWhichgroupofpeopleisatthebottomofanearlystatebuthigherthanthefarmers?NotNotgrouped/groupedcraftClassifyingAlthoughhumanshaveestablishedmanytypesofsocietieshistory,sociologistsandanthropologiststendtoclassifydifferentsocietiesaccordingtothedegreetowhichdifferentgroupswithinasocietyhaveunequalaccesstoadvantagessuchasresources,prestigeorpower,andusuallyrefertofourbasictypesofsocieties.Fromleasttomostsociallycomplextheyareclans,tribes,chiefdomsandstates.Thesearesmall-scalesocietiesofhuntersandgatherers,generallyoffewerthan100people,whomoveseasonallytoexploitwild(undomesticated)foodresources.Mostsurvivinghunter-gatherergroupsareofthiskind,suchastheHadzaofTanzaniaortheSanofsouthernAfrica.Clanmembersaregenerallykinsfolk,relatedbydescentormarriage.Clanslackformalleaders,sotherearenomarkedeconomicdifferencesordisparitiesinstatusamongtheirmembers.Becauseclansarecomposedofmobilegroupsofhunter-gatherers,theirsitesconsistmainlyofseasonallyoccupiedcamps,andothersmallerandmorespecialisedsites.Amongthelatterarekillorbutcherysites—locationswherelargemammalsarekilledandsometimesbutchered-andworksites,wheretoolsaremadeorotherspecificactivitiescarriedout.Thebasecampofsuchagroupmaygiveevidenceofratherinsubstantialdwellingsortemporaryshelters,alongwiththedebrisofresidentialoccupation.Thesearegenerallylargerthanmobilehunter-gatherergroups,butrarelynumbermorethanafewthousand,andtheirdietorsubsistenceisbasedlargelyoncultivatedplantsanddomesticatedanimals.Typically,theyaresettledfarmers,buttheymaybenomadicwithaverydifferent,mobileeconomybasedontheintensiveexploitationoflivestock.Theseare munitysocieties,withtheindividualcommunitiesintegratedintothelargersocietythroughkinshipties.Althoughsometribeshaveofficialsandevena"capital"orseatofernment,suchofficialslacktheeconomicbasenecessaryforeffectiveuseofpower.Thetypicalsettlementpatternfortribesisoneofsettledhomesteadsorvillages.Characteristically,noonesettlementanyoftheothersintheregion.Instead,thearchaeologistfindsevidenceforisolated,permanentlyoccupiedhousesorforpermanentvillages.Suchvillagesmaybemadeupofacollectionofflee-standinghouses,likethoseofthefirstfarmsoftheDanubevalleyinEurope.Ortheymaybeclustersofbuildingsgroupedtogether,forexample,thepueblosoftheAmericanSouthwest,andtheearlyfarmingvillageorsmalltownofÇatalhöyükinmodernTurkey.Theseoperateontheprincipleofranking—differencesinsocialstatusbetweenpeople.Differentlineages(alineageisagroupclaimingdescentfromacommonancestor)aregradedonascaleofprestige,andtheseniorlineage,andhencethesocietyasawhole,isernedbyachief.Prestigeandrankaredeterminedbyhowcloselyrelatedoneistothechief,andthereisnotruestratificationintoclasses.Theroleofthechiefiscrucial.Often,thereislocalspecialisationincraftproducts,andsurplusesoftheseandoffoodstuffsareperiodicallypaidasobligationtothechief.Heusesthesetomaintainhisretainers,andmayusethemforredistributiontohissubjects.Thechiefdomgenerallyhasacenterofpower,oftenwithtemples,residencesofthechiefandhisretainers,andcraftspecialists.Chiefdomsvarygreatlyinsize,buttherangeisgenerallybetweenabout5000and20, EarlyThesepreservemanyofthefeaturesofchiefdoms,buttheruler(perhapsakingorsometimesaqueen)hasexplicitauthoritytoestablishlawsandalsotoenforcethembytheuseofastandingarmySocietynolongerdependstotallyuponkinrelationships:itisnowstratifiedintodifferentclasses.Agriculturalworkersandthepoorerurbandwellersformthelowestclasses,withthecraftspecialistsabove,andthepriestsandkinsfolkoftherulerhigherstill.Thefunctionsoftherulerareoftenseparatedfromthoseofthepriest:palaceisdistinguishedfromtemple.Thesocietyisviewedasanobligationtopaytaxes.Thecentralcapitalhousesaadministrationofofficials;oneoftheirprincipalpurposesistocollectrevenue(oftenintheformoftaxesandtolls)anddistributeittoernment,armyandcraftspecialists.ManyearlystatesdevelopedcomplexredistributionsystemstosupporttheseessentialThisrathersimplesocialtypology,setoutbyElmanServiceandelaboratedbyWilliamSandersandJosephMarino,canbecriticised,anditshouldnotbeusedunthinkingly.Nevertheless,ifweareseekingtotalkaboutearlysocieties,wemustusewordsandhenceconceptstodoso.categoriesprovideagoodframeworktohelporganiseour题型分布与题型分布与Fossilfiles:thePaleobiologyArewenowlivingthroughthesixthextinctionasourownactivitiesdestroyecosystemsandwipeoutdiversity?That’sthedoomsdayscenariopaintedbymanyecologists,andtheymaywellberight.Thetroubleiswedon’tknowforsurebecausewedon’thaveaclearpictureofhowlifechangesbetweenextinctioneventsorwhathashappenedinepisodes.Wedon’tevenknowhowmanyspeciesarealivetoday,letalonetherateatwhichtheyare ingextinct.Anewprojectaimstofillsomeofthegaps.ThePaleobiologyDatabaseaspirestobeanonlinerepositoryofinformationabouteveryfossileverdugup.Itisahugeundertakinghasbeendescribedasbiodiversity’sequivalentoftheHumanProject.ItsorganizershopethatbyrecordingthehistoryofbiodiversitytheywillgainaninsightintohowenvironmentalchangeshaveshapedlifeonEarthinthepastandhowtheymightdosointhefuture.Thedatabasemayevenindicatewhetherlifecanreboundnomatterwhatwethrowatit,orwhetherahumaninducedextinctioncouldbewithoutparallel,therulesthathaveappliedthroughouttherestoftheplanet’sButalreadytheprojectisattractingharshcriticism.Someexpertsittobeseriouslyflawed.Theypointoutthatadatabaseisonlyasgoodasthedatafedintoit,andthatevenifallthecurrentfossilfindswerecatalogued,theywouldprovidean pleteinventoryoflifebecausewearefarfromdiscoveringeveryfossilisedspecies.Theysaythatresearchersshouldgetupfromtheircomputersandgetbackintothedirttodigupnewfossils.Othersaremorescepticalstill,arguingthatwecannevergetthefullpicturebecausethefossilrecordisriddledwithholesandbiases.C.FansofthePaleobiologyDatabaseacknowledgethatthefossilrecordwillalwaysbe plete.Buttheyseevalueinlookingforglobalpatternsthatshowrelativechangesinbiodiversity.“Thefossilrecordisthebesttoolhaveforunderstandinghowdiversityandextinctionworkintimes,”saysJohnAlroyfromtheNationalCenterforEcologicalysisandSynthesisinSantaBarbara.“Havingabackgroundextinctionestimategivesusabenarkforunderstandingthemassextinctionthat’scurrentlyunderway.ItallowsustosayjusthowbaditisinrelativeD．Tothisend,thePaleobiologyDatabaseaimstobethemostthoroughattemptyettocomeupwithgoodglobaldiversitycurves.Everydaybetween10and15scientistsaroundtheworldaddinformationaboutfindstothedatabase.Sinceitgotupandrunningin1998,scientistshaveenteredalmost340,000specimens,rangingfromplantstowhalestoinsectstodinosaurstoseaurchins.OveralltotalsareupdatedhourlyatAnyonecandownloaddatafromthepublicpartofthesiteandplaywiththenumberstotheirheart’scontent.Already,databasehasthrownupsomesurprisingresults.Lookingatthebigpicture,Alroyandhiscolleaguesbelievetheyhavefoundevidencethatreachedaplateaulongago,contrarytothereceivedwisdomthatspeciesnumbershaveincreasedcontinuouslybetweenextinctionevents.“Thetraditionalviewisthatdiversityhasgoneupandupandup,”he“Ourresearchisshowingthatdiversitylimitswereapproachedmanyofmillionsofyearsbeforethedinosaursevolved,muchlessextinction.”ThissuggeststhatonlyacertainnumberofspeciescanliveonEarthatatime,fillingaprescribednumberofnicheslikespacesinastoreycarpark.Onceit’sfull,nomorenewspeciescansqueezein,untilextinctionsfreeupnewspacesorsomethingrareandcatastrophicaddsnewfloortothecarAlroyhasalsousedthedatabasetoreassesstheaccuracyofspeciesnames.Hisfindingssuggestthatirregularitiesinclassificationinflatetheoverallnumberofspeciesinthefossilrecordbybetween32and44percent.Singlespeciesoftenendupwithseveralnames,hesays,duetomisidentificationorpoorcommunicationbetweentaxonomistsindifferentcountries.Repetitionlikethiscandistortdiversitycurves.“Ifyouhavereallybadtaxonomyinoneshortinterval,itwilllooklikeadiversity-abigdiversificationfollowedbyabigextinction-whenallthathashappenedisachangeinthequalityofnames,”saysAlroy.Forexample,hisstatisticalysisindicatesthatofthe4861NorthAmericanmammalspeciescataloguedinthedatabase,between24and31percentwilleventuallyprovetobeduplicates.Ofcourse,thefossilrecordisundeniablypatchy.Somelacesandtimeshaveleftbehindmorefossil-filledrocksthanothers.Somehavebeensampledmorethoroughly.Andcertainkindsofcreatures—thosewithhardpartsthatlivedinoceans,forexample—aremorelikelytoleavearecordbehind,whileothers,likejellyfish,willalwaysremainamystery.Alroyhasalsotriedtoaccountforthis.Heestimates,forexample,that41percentofNorthAmericanmammalsthathaveeverlivedareknownfromfossils,andhe sthatsimilarproportionoffossilsaremissingfromothergroups,suchasfungiandinsects.Noteveryoneisimpressedwithsuchmathematicalwizardry.OnathanAdrainfromtheUniversityofIowainIowaCitypointsoutthatstatisticalwranglinghasbeenknowntocreatemassextinctionswherenoneoccurred.Itiseasytomisinterpretdata.Forexample,changesinsealevelorinconsistentsamplingmethodscanmimicmajorchangesinbiodiversity.Indeed,arecentandthoroughexaminationoftheliteratureonmarinebivalvefossilshasconvincedDavidJablonskyfromtheUniversityofChicagoandhiscolleaguesthattheirdiversityhasincreasedsteadilyoverthepast5millionyears.Adrainbelievesthatfancyyticaltechniquesarenosubstituteforhardevidence,buthehasalsoseenhowinadequatehistoricalcollectionscanbe.WhenhestartedhisongoingstudyofNorthAmericanfossilsfromtheEarlyOrdovician,about500millionyearsago,theliteraturedescribedonegenusandfourspeciesoftrilobites,lustbygoingbacktothefossilbedsandsamplingmorethoroughly,Adrainfound11generaand39species.“Lookinginwardhasmaybetakenusasfarasit’sgoingtotakeus,”Theonlywaytoreallygetatthehistoryofbiodiversity,sayAdrainandanincreasinglyvocalgroupofscientists,istogetbackoutinthefieldandcollectnewdata.Withaninventoryofalllivingspecies,ecologistscouldstarttoputthecurrentbiodiversitycrisisinhistorical .AlthoughcreatingsuchalistwouldbeatasktorivaleventhePalaeobiologyDatabase,itisexactlywhattheSanFrancisco-basedALLSpeciesFoundationhopestoachieveinthenext25years.Theeffortisessential,saysHarvardbiologistEdwardO.Wilson,whoisalarmedbycurrentratesofextinction.“ThereisaWe’vebeguntomeasureit,andit’sveryhigh,”Wilsonsays.“Weneedthiskindofinformationinmuchmoredetailtoprotectallofbiodiversity,notjusttheonesweknowwell.”Letthecountingcontinue.AssessingtheAssessingtherisk题型分布与答案参Questions27-DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassage3?Inboxes27-32onyouranswersheet, ifthestatementagreeswiththe ifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVEN ifthereisnoinformationonthisThetitleofthedebateisnotAllthescientistsinvitedtothedebatewerefromthefieldofThemessagethosescientistswhoconductedthesurveyweresendingpeopleshouldn’ttakeAllthelistedtechnologiesareriskierthanotherItisworthtakingtheriskstoinventAlltheotherinventionsonthelistwerealsojudgedbytheprecautionaryQuestions33-CompletethesummarybelowusingNOMORETHANTHREEWORDSformthepassage.Writeyouranswersinboxes33-39onyouranswerWhenapplyingprecautionaryprincipletodecidewhethertoinventanewtechnology,peopleshouldalsotakeintoconsiderationofthe33 ,alongwiththeusualconsiderationof34 .Forexample,thoughriskyanddangerousenough,peoplestillenjoy35 fortheexcitementitprovides.Ontheotherhand,expertsbelievethefuturepopulationdesperayneeds inspiteoftheirundefinedrisks.However,theresearchesconductedsofarhavenotbeendirectedtowardsincreasingtheyieldof37 ,buttoreducethecostof38andtobringmoreprofitoutofit.Intheend,suchselfishuseofprecautionaryprincipleforbusinessandpoliticalgainhasoftenledpeopleto39sciencefortheybelievescientistsarenottobetrusted.QuestionChoosethecorrectletter,A,B,CorWriteyouranswerinbox40onyouranswersheet.Whatisthemainthemeofthepassage?PeoplehavetherighttodoubtscienceandTheprecautionaryprinciplecouldhavepreventedthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology.TherearenotenoughpeoplewhotrulyunderstandtheprecautionaryTheprecautionaryprinciplebidsustotakerisksatallNotNotconsumer’sriskandGMwheatandAAssessingtheHowdowejudgewhetheritisrighttogoaheadwithanewtechnology?Applyprecautionaryprincipleproperlyandyouwon’tgofarwrong,saysColinAsatitleforasupposedlyunprejudiceddebateonscientificprogress,“Panicattack:interrogatingourobsessionwithrisk”didnotbodewell.HeldlastweekattheRoyalInstitutioninLondon,theeventbroughttogetherscientistsfromacrosstheworldtoaskwhysocietyissoobsessedwithriskandtocallfora“morerational”approach.“Weseemtobeorganisingsocietyaroundthe of‘bettersafethansorry’,”exclaimeded,theonlinepublicationthatorganizedtheevent.“Whataretheconsequencesofthisoverbearingconcernwithrisks?”Thedebatewasprecededbyasurveyof40scientistswhowereinvitedtodescribehowawfulourliveswouldbeifthe“precautionaryprinciple”hadbeenallowedtoprevailinthepast.Theirresponsewas:noheartsurgeryorantibiotics,andhardlyanydrugsatall;aeroplanes,bicyclesorhigh-voltagepowergrids;nopasteurisation,biotechnology;noquantummechanics;nowheel;no“discovery”ofAmerica.Inshort,theirmessagewas:norisk,nogain.Theyhaveabsoluymissedthepoint.Theprecautionaryprincipleisasubtleidea.Ithasvariousforms,butallofthemgenerallyincludesomenotionofcost-effectiveness.Thusthepointisnotsimplytobanthingsthatarenotknowntobeabsoluysafe.Rather,itsays:“Ofcourseyoucanmakenoprogresswithoutrisk.Butifthereisnoobviousgainfromtakingtherisk,thendon’ttakeit.”Clearly,allthetechnologieslistedbythe40well-chosensavantswereinnayriskyattheirinception,asalltechnologiesare.Butallofthemwouldhavereceivedthegreenlightundertheprecautionaryprinciplebecausetheyallhadthepotentialtooffertremendousbenefits—thesolutionstoverybigproblems—ifonlythesnagscouldbe e.Iftheprecautionaryprinciplehadbeeninplace,thescientistslus,wewouldnothaveantibiotics.Butofcoursewewould—iftheversionoftheprinciplethatsensiblepeoplenowunderstandhadbeenapplied.Whenpenicillinwasdiscoveredinthe1920s,infectivebacteriawerelayingwastetotheworld.Childrendiedfromdiphtheriaandwhoocough,everyopendrainbroughtthethreatoftyphoid,andanywoundcouldleadtosepticaemiaandevengangrene.PenicillinwasturnedintoapracticaldrugduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenthemanypestilencesthatresultformwarthreatenedtokillmorepeoplethanthebombs.Ofcourseantibioticswereapriority.Ofcoursetherisks,suchastheycouldbeperceived,wereworthtaking.Andsowiththeotheritemsonthescientists’list:electriclightbulbs,bloodtransfusions,CATscans,knives,themeaslesvaccine—theprecautionaryprinciplewouldhavepreventedallofthem,theylus.Butthisisjustplainwrong.Iftheprecautionaryprinciplehadbeenappliedproperly,allthesecreationswouldhavepassedmuster,becausealloffered advantagescomparedtotheri