大学英语修辞学第二章

Answerthequestions:1.Whydoweneedtolearnrhetoric?2.WhatdoyouknowabouttheoriginofEnglishrhetoric?3.Whatisrhetoric?4.WhatdoyourknowaboutSophists?SocratesSocrates(469--399BC),philosopherMostofourknowledgeofhimcomesfromtheworksofPlato柏拉图有一天问老师苏格拉底什么是爱情。

苏格拉底叫他到麦田走一次，要不回头地走，在途中要摘一颗最好的麦穗，但只可以摘一次。柏拉图充满信心地去了。谁知过了半天他仍没有回来，最后，他垂头丧气地出现在老师跟前，诉说空手而回的原因：“很难的看见一棵看似不错的，却不知是不是最好，不得已，因为只可以摘一次，只好放弃，再看看有没有更好的，到发现已经走到尽头时，才发觉手上一棵麦穗也没有。”这时，苏格拉底告诉他：“那就是爱情，爱情是一种理想，而且很容易错过。”Uniquemethodofphilosophicalinquiry—questioningpeopleonthepositionstheyassertedandworkingthemthroughquestions,provingthattheiroriginalassertionwaswrong.Socrates’philosophicalideas:(1)Dowhatonethinksisrighteveninthefaceofuniversalopposition;(2)Pursueknowledgeevenwhenopposed.“Rhetoric(formandeloquence)wasimpressivebutdidnottellpeoplemuch.”Whatisimportantisnottheformoflanguage,nottheskillofusinglanguage,butthethought,truth,factandwisdominit.Contribution:TheimportanceofjusticeandtruthIsocratesIsocrates(436-338B.C.)founderofthefirstrhetoricalschoolinhistory.Isocrates’philosophicalidea:Realityisimmediatehumanexperience:“Whatyouseeiswhatyouget.”Knowledgeistentative.Wecan’tknowanythingforsure.“Agoodopinionisonethathelpsexplainlifeinawaythathelpspeoplegetalongintheworld.”abouteducation:Educationisthesavioroftheworld.Theteachershouldexplainprinciplesandprovideexamplesasmodels;Theteachershouldguidehisstudentstotheacquisitionofpracticalwisdom.Contribution:Histrainedalargeamountofpoliticalfigures,andstatesmen,promotedthepracticaluseofrhetoricalarts.PlatoPlato(427?-347?B.C.)studyafterSocrates,philosopher柏拉图（约前427年－前347年），古希腊伟大的哲学家，也是全部西方哲学乃至整个西方文化最伟大的哲学家和思想家之一，他和老师苏格拉底，学生亚里士多德并称为古希腊三大哲学家。另有其他概念包括：柏拉图主义、柏拉图式爱情、经济学图表等含义Rhetoricwastheexpressionoftruth;itwastheartofrationaldiscourseratherthantheartofeloquentexpression.Clarity,consistencyandnaturalnessweretheonlyfeaturesnecessaryfortheeffectivepresentationofideas.Aristotle亚里士多德(384322BC)

studiedunderPlato,Greekphilosopher世界古代史上最伟大的哲学家、科学家和教育家之一柏拉图的学生，马其顿国王亚历山大大帝的老师。马克思曾称亚里士多德是古希腊哲学家中最博学的人物，恩格斯称他是古代的黑格尔。亚里士多德一生勤奋治学，从事的学术研究涉及到逻辑学、修辞学、物理学、生物学、教育学、心理学、政治学、经济学、美学、博物学等，写下了大量的著作，他的著作是古代的百科全书，据说有四百到一千部，主要有《工具论》、《形而上学》、《物理学》、《伦理学》、《政治学》、《诗学》等。他的思想对人类产生了深远的影响。他创立了形式逻辑学，丰富和发展了哲学的各个分支学科，对科学等作出了巨大的贡献。最早论证地球是球形的人。“Ilovemyteacher,butIlovetruthmore.”“Itisnotsufficienttoknowwhatoneoughttosay,butonemustalsoknowhowtosayit.”Rhetoric—atool,likeaknife,morallyneutralandcapableofbeingusedforgoodorevil.Rhetoricisgoal-orientedthinkingaboutwhatwillwork.Itrequiresskillatbothfindingmaterialsandselectingthosethataremostlikelytosucceed.RhetoricandPoetics:cornerstonesofWesternrhetoric.ThebookRhetoricfallsinthreepartstreatingrespectively(1)thenatureofrhetoric,(2)invention,and(3)arrangementandstyle.twocategoriesofargumentsbasedonthekindsofproof:artistic

andinartistic.Inartisticproofsexternalevidencesuchaswitnesses,contracts,evidencebasedontorture.Artisticproofsthreemeansofpersuasion:logospathosethosLogos—logicalreasoningEffectivelogicalreasoningcomesfromsoundlogicalthinkingwhichisexpressedinrelevantmaterial,properorganization,coherentsentences,andwords.Deduction演绎法Induction归纳法Deductivewayofarguingistermedasenthymeme三段论省略式.“Enthymemeistheveryheartandsoulofrhetoric.”Enthymemeleavesspaceforimagination;thereforeitismoreeffective.“Heisonlyhumanandthereforeliabletomakemistakes.”Premise:“Allmenmakemistakes.”“Allhumanmakemistakesandheisonlyacommonman.”Conclusion:“Heisliabletomakemistakes.”Pathos--emotionalappealTheeffectsofemotionalappealincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pity,jealousy,etc.Emotionalappealdependsontheskillfulandwittyhandlingoflanguage.Ethos--ethicalappealEthosincludesone’spersonalstanding,academicauthority,andmoralqualitiesusedtoguaranteeorevenraisehisorhercredibilityandacceptabilityinthemindoftheaudience.Storyof“Thewolfiscoming!”Donotoveruse:logos—convincingbutboringanddry;pathos—funnyandmovingbutpointless;ethos—wit-aboundingbutineffectiveOnlythroughtheinterdependenceofalltheseappealscanaspeechbeeffective.Aristotleadvocatesaplainornaturalstylethatexhibitsthevirtuesofclarity,dignity,proprietyandcorrectness.Hisstylecontrastswithpompousstylesthatprecededandfollowedhim.FounderofWesternrhetoric2.1.4Romanrhetoricians

andtheirtheoryMarcusTulliusCicero(106--43B.C.)西塞罗Romanstatesman,orator,andwriterCicero’sinfluencehadspecialsignificanceduringtheRenaissance,withitsemphasisonthehumanistictrainingofclergyandstatesmen.atleastsevenrhetoricaltreatises,suggestedthreelevelsofstyle:Highstyle:

tomovetheaudience;Middlestyle:

to

delight/persuadetheaudience;Lowstyle:toteachtheaudienceQuintilian(c.35—c.95AD)昆体良著名律师、教育家和皇室委任的第一个修辞学教授，也是公元1世纪罗马最有成就的教育家。

borninSpain，aprominentteacherofrhetoricinRome.BestknownforhisInstitutioOratoria(EducationofanOrator)《演说家的教育》in12books,acomprehensivetreatmentoftheartofrhetoricandthetrainingofanoratorQuintilian’sstyleisamongthemostbeautifulinhisperiod.

CiceroandQuintilian’sJointcontribution:TheoryofFiveArts（五艺说）Inventiondiscoveryofvalidorseeminglyvalidarguments:who,what,when,where,howandwhy.Arrangementhowtoorganizetheproofseffectively.Styleeffectivesentences,clarity,forceandbeautyandusingfiguresofspeech.Memoryartofcommittingthespeechtomemorybymnemonicdevices.Deliveryartofspeaking:speaker’spose,tone,gesture,facialexpression,etc.2.2RhetoricintheMiddleAgesLifewashard.Nobodyexpectedconditionstoimprove.StrongbeliefinChristianity.TomoveacongregationtoacceptChristianity,theclergyornamentedsermonsandletterswith“figures”.Twoprominentdevelopments:1.Rhetoricbecamebothapracticalartandanacademicsubject.2.Stylebegantoassumegreaterimportance,togetherwithdeliverydominatingtheotherthreearts.St.Augustine(35