Appraisal Theory 功能语言学评价理论

Appraisal:negotiatingattitudesThelanguageofemotion,ethicsandaesthetics1.J.R.Matin2.Definitionsandbasicstructure3.Detailsa.Attitudeb.Amplificationc.SourceApplicationtoanalysisofapoem.CommentProf.J.R.MartinLife:J.R.MartinisProfessorofLinguisticsattheUniversityofSydney.Hisresearchinterestsincludesystemictheory,functionalgrammar,discoursesemantics,register,genre,multimodalityandcriticaldiscourseanalysis,focusingonEnglishandTagalog-withspecialreferencetothetransdisciplinaryfieldsofeducationallinguisticsandsocialsemiotics.ProfessorMartinwaselectedafellowtheAustralianAcademyoftheHumanitiesin1998,andawardedaCentenaryMedalforhisservicestoLinguisticsandPhilologyin2003.RecentpublicationsWorkingwithDiscourse:meaningbeyondtheclause(JRMartin&DavidRose)TheLanguageofEvaluation:appraisalinEnglish.(JRMartin&PRRWhite)ShidoniiGakuhanoSFL:HarideiGengoRironnoTenkai.Genrerelations:mappingculture.(JRMartin&DavidRose).Learningtowrite/readingtolearn:scaffoldingdemocracyinliteracyclassrooms.(DavidRose&JRMartin).1.Definitionsandbasicstructure

Appraisal:isconcernedwithevaluation:thekindsofattitudesthatarenegotiatedinatest,thestrengthofthefeelingsinvolvedandthewaysinwhichvaluesaresourcedandreadersaligned.

评价理论是对人际功能所进行的横向和纵向的延伸,它主要研究个人如何运用语言去对事物做出评价,采取立场,从而调节主体间立场乃至意识形态立场。Martin指出,通过告诉听话人或读者对某些人和事物的感受,便可以利用评价资源去协商和调节社会关系。这就是说,评价理论所关心的是说话人利用其话语介入到语篇之中从而使语义随说话人的立场而变化。运用评价理论可以分析作者和说话者的态度和立场。韩礼德和哈桑致力于从社会学的角度研究语言的三大元功能:概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能。然而他们却忽略了对谈话人的赋值语义(semanticsofevaluation)的研究(王振华,2001)。澳大利亚语言学家马丁(J.R.Martin)进一步发展了系统功能语法,在原有的基础上创造性地提出了评价系统。此系统是一个人际意义系统,人们可利用它来领会各种社会关系。它涉及文本所揭示出来的各种态度,各种情感的强度以及确定各种价值来源的手段(Martin2001:19)。2.Definitionsandbasic

structureNegotiationattitude:

Appraisalsareinterpersonalkindsofmeanings,whichrealizevariationinthetenorofsocialinteractionsenactedinatext.Peopleusetheresourcesofappraisalfornegotiatingsocialrelationships,bytellingourlistenersorreadershowwefeelaboutthingsandpeople(inaword,whatourattitudesare.).Appraisalconsistsofthreeaspects:attitude,amplification,andsource.2.Definitionsandbasicstructurethreeaspectsofappraisal.

Attitudes:indicateswhatpeopleappraise,includingevaluatingthings,people’scharacterandtheirfeelings.Inotherwords,therearethreetypesofattitudes:expressingemotion,judgingcharacterandvaluingtheworthofthings.Amplification:indicateshowwefeelaboutthedegreeoftheappraisal.Evaluationscanbemoreorlessintense,thatistheymaybemoreorlessamplified.Itcoversforceandfocus.Engagement:indicatesthesourceoftheappraisal.Andtheattitudemaybethewriter’sownoritmaybeattributedtosomeothersources,viaprojection,modalization,orconcession..2.DefinitionsandbasicstructureExamples:1.Hewasworkingina

topsecuritystructure.(valuingtheworthofthings)2.Itwasthebeginningofabeautifulrelationship.(valuingtheworthofthings)3.Abubbly,vivaciousmanwhobeamedoutwildenergy.Sharplyintelligent.(judgingcharacter)4.EvenifhewasandEnglishman,hewaspopularwithalthe‘Boer’Afrikanners.(judgingcharacter)5.Andallmygirlfriendsenviedme.(expressingemotion)6.Iwastorntopieces.(expressingemotion)7.wildenergy.Sharplyintelligent.(amplification)

8.Andallmygirlfriendsenviedme.(engagement)Attitudes

Wediscussthethreekindsofattitudes:affect:judgment,andappreciation;1.Affect:expressingourfeelingsPeopleexpresstheirfeelingsindiscourseintwogeneralways:positiveandnegative;directlyandimplied.Affectcanbepositiveornegativeandthatitcanberealizeddirectlyorindirectly.1)positiveandnegative;peoplecanhavegoodfeelingsandbadfeelings.forexample,satisfied,respect,wish;pain,bitterness,feared,etc.Weareecstatic.Theywouldbecomerestless.Attitudes2)a.directly:emotionscandescribedindifferentways.First,speakerreferstoaemotionalstate,usingwordsthatnamespecificemotions:.forexample:torntopieces,pain,ecstatic,feared,worried,etc.Secondisphysicalexpression:speakerreferstoemotionphysically,describingbehaviorthatalsodirectlyexpressesemotion;forexample:withdrawn,presshisfaceintohishands,shakeuncontrollablytoexpressfear,etc.

Attitudesb.implicit:thespeakerdescribesunusualbehaviortoexpressfeelingsindirectly.Forexample,drinktoomuch,wanderfromwindowtowindow,juststaringinfrontofhim.

metaphorisanotherwaytoexpressfeelingsindirectly.Forexample,icecoldinaswelteringnight;eyesbewildered,butdulllikethedead.Question:whataboutneutral?AttitudesPositive

Weareecstatic.Wecelebrated.NegativeIwastorntopieces.Ican’texplainthepainandbitternessinmeDirectEmotionalstate:ecstatic,

wildconsumingfear

Physicalexpression:presshisfaceintohishands,shakeuncontrollablyImplicitunusualbehavior:wanderfromwindowtowindowmetaphor:dulllikethedead;Judgingpeople’scharacter2.Judgingpeople’scharacter:wejudgepeople’scharacterfromtwoperspectives:personaljudgmentsofadmirationorcriticismandmoraljudgmentsofpraiseorcondemnation,bothcanbepositiveornegativeandexplicitlyorimplicitly.1)Personaljudgmentmeanstocommentonthebehaviorofpeople.Itcanalsobepositive(admiring)andnegative(criticizing);forexample,Helenadescribesherfirstlovewithwords:energetic,intelligent,populartoshowheradmirationtohimdirectlyandphraseasworkinginatopsecuritystructuretojudgehischaracterindirectly.Judgingpeople’scharacter2)moraljudgmentscanbemadepositiveornegative:itcanalsobemadedirectlyandindirectly.a.Helenacondemnsherleadersfortheirdishonestyandinhumanity

Ourleadersaretooholyandinnocent.Andfaceless.Whatelsecanthisabnormallifebethanacruelhumanrightsviolation?.b.Helenapraisestheleadersoftheircourage:Atleasttheirleadershavethegutstostandbytheirvulture,torecognizetheirsacrifices.Withadmirationandcriticism,moraljudgmentscanalsobemadedirectlyorimplied.Metaphorplaysaroleinjudgingcharacter:

Andtodaytheyallwashtheirhandsininnocence.AppreciatingthingsAppreciatingthings:thingscanbeappreciatedpositivelyornegatively.Appreciatingthingsincludesevaluationofdifferentkindsofthings,aswellasrelationships,qualityoflifeandevensemioticthings.ThefollowingaretheappreciationofthingsinHelena’snarrative.Positiveabeautifulrelationshipaveryseriousissuehealingofbreachesrestorationofbrokenrelationships

negativemyunsuccessfulmarriageafrivolousquestionbrokenrelationshipsthecommunityheorshehasinjuredTheborderlineofcharacterandvalue:thereareseveralinstancesofattitudeinourtextsthatcouldperhapsbeanalysedaseitherjudgmentofcharacterorappreciationofthings.Thesebringustotheborderofcharacterandvalue.Itisimportanttotakeco-textintoconsideration,ratherthananalysingsimplyitembyitem.AmplificationAmplification:degreeoftheappraisalOnedistinctivefeatureofattitudeisthatattitudesaregradable.Thismeansthatwecanexpresshowstronglywefeelaboutsomeoneorsomething.Twokindsofamplification:1:force:turningthevolumeupanddownWordsthatintensifymeaning:somewhat/fairlly/quite/really/sharply/extremelyintelligentWordsthatincludedegreesofintensity:happy/delighted/ecstatic.2.focus:sharpeningorsofteningcategoriesofpeopleandthings:about/exactly;real/sortof/kindofAmplificationForceIntensifiersAttitudinallexisMetaphorsSwearingHestillplaysgreatThesecondpartisfantasticIcecoldinaswelteringnightDammit,theremustbeacliqueFocusSharpenSoftenWearerealpolicemennow.Apart-timebluefan.AmplificationSum-up:amplifyingattitudeinvolvesasetofresourcesforadjustinghowstronglywefeelaboutpeopleandthings.Technicallywerefertotheseresourcesasforce.Weusethemtoturnthevolumeupordown.Gradingexperientialboundariesinvolvesresourcesthatthatsharpenorblurapparentlycategoricaldistinctions.Technicallytheseresourcesarereferredtoasfocus.Theymakecutanddrieddistinctionsnegotiable.Technicallytheseresourcesarereferredtoasgraduation.

Sourceofattitudes:Sourceofattitudes:whoaretheevaluationcomingfrom?Onecanexpresstheirownopinion,thatmeansheisresponsibleforalloftheevaluation.However,hecanalsoexplicitlyintroduceotherpeople’svoicebyquotingorreportingwhatotherpeoplesaid.SourceofattitudesThispotentialforsourcingwhatissaidwasoneofthefactorsthatgottheRussianlinguistBakhtinthinkingaboutthedialogicnatureofdiscourse,evenintextwetraditionallythinkofasmonologues.TwotermsHeterogloss:thesourceofattitudeisotherthanthewriterMonogloss(singlevoice):thesourceissimplytheauthorSourceofattitudesThreetypesofheterogloss:1.Projection:quoteorreportwhatpeoplesayorthink,throughprojectionthenwecanintroduceadditionalsourcesofevaluation.Wecanchoosefromprojectionoverandoveragaintoexplorethesourceofsources,andthesourceofthesourceofsources.SourceofattitudesFourwaystoattributesources:asprojectingclauses,asnamesforspeechacts,asprojectingwithinclauses,asscarequotes.Iknowwhereeverythingbegan.Mystorybeginsinmylateteenageyearsasafarmgirl.ManyofthosewhohavecomeforwardhadpreviouslybeenregardedasrespectablemembersoftheircommunitiesAbruptlymutterthefearedword‘trip’anddriveoff.SourceofattitudesModality:Alongsideprojection,anotherwayofintroducingadditionalvoicesintoatextisviamodality.Hallidalydescribesmodalityasaresourcewhichsetsupasemanticspacebetweenyesandno,aclinerunningbetweenpositiveandnegativepoles.Ateachpoleofscalesofmodalityisthechoiceofpositiveornegativepolarity.Modalitydoesn’ttakevoiceonanddenythem;itopensupaspacefornegotiationinwhichdifferentpointsofviewcancirculatearoundanissue,aspaceperhapsformediationandpossiblereconciliation.SourceofattitudesFivetypesofmodalitytonegotiateinformationandservices:usuality,probability,obligation,inclinationandability.SourceofattitudesConcession:knownascounterexpectancy,adjustandmonitorreader’sexpectation.Concessives:conjunctionsthatadjustandmonitorexpectation,eg:but,evenifetc.Ican’thandlethemananymore!But,Ican’tgetout.Continuatives:thesearelikeconjunctionsbuttheyoccurinsidetheclause,ratherthanatthebeginning.eg:already,finally,still,etc.Sum-up:Whatwehavearethreemainapp