评价与测量基本课件lt33修改及补充201133approaches to testing

3)ApproachestoTestingTheEssay-TranslationApproachTheStructuralistApproachTheIntegrativeApproachTheCommunicativeApproach*Reference:WritingEnglishLanguageTest,P15

GeneralknowledgeTheapproachesshouldnotberegardedasbeingstrictlyconfinedtocertainperiodinthedevelopmentoflanguagetesting,althoughtheyarelistedhereinchronologicalorder;ThefourapproachesarenotalwaysmutuallyexclusiveTeachingMethods

---DifferentSchoolsCognitivism:

Grammar-TranslationMethod

CognitiveApproachBehaviorism:

DirectMethod

Audio-lingualMethodSituationalLang.TeachingEclecticism:CommunicativeLang.TeachingNewExperiments:

TotalPhysicalResponse

CommunityLang.LearningTheSilentWaySuggestopedia

I)

TheEssay-TranslationApproachItiscommonlyreferredtoasthepre-scientificstageoflanguagetesting;Nospecialskillorexpertiseintestingisrequired;Subjectivejudgmentoftheteacher;Forms:essaywriting,translation,grammaticalanalysis;Feature:Aheavyliteraryandculturalbias.2)TheStructuralistApproachregardinglanguagelearningassystematicacquisitionofasetofhabits;Drawingontheworkofstructurallinguistics,esp.contrastiveanalysisandfocusingontheneedtoidentifyandmeasurethelearner’smasteryoftheseparateelementsofthetargetlanguage:phonology,vocabulary,grammarandSkillsoflistening,speaking,readingandwriting;Suchtestsemploywordsandsentencescompletelydivorcedfromanycontext,andtheskillsoflistening,speaking,reading&writingarealsoseparatedfromoneanotherasmuchaspossiblebecauseitisconsideredessentialtotestonethingatatime;

PsychometricsPsychometrics:atheoryofthemeasurementofsuchpsychologicaltraitsasintelligenceandlanguageproficiencyanditisbasedontheassumptionsofnormaldistributionofscoresandofmaximizingthedifferencesbetweentesttakersinwhatismeasured.RobertLadoReference:王振亚，语言测试河北大学出版社，2009（P25-）Features:Emphasizingstandardizationandobjectivity;Summingupperformanceinnumbers(scores);Favoringhighlystructuredtasks;ConcerningitselfmorewithproductthanwithprocessThepsychometricapproachtomeasurementwithitsemphasisonreliabilityandobjectivityformsanintegralpartofthestructuralisttesting,hence,italsocalledstructuralist-psychometricapproachorpsychometric-structuralistapproach

:

theneedforstatisticalmeasuresbeingimportantandmultiple-choiceitembeingpopular.Agraphic&verbalpresentationofP-SApp.languageAnalysisTestproficiency

Criterionproficiency

Components

skills

listeningspeakingreadingwritingPhonologyGraphologyLexiconGrammarRateandfluencyCultureSamplingconstructionTestperformanceMeasurementScoreJudgmentResultTestconstructionPlanningthetest

PartItemtypeNumberofitemsPointsMinutes1.ListeningShort-answer2020302.VocabularyMultiple-choice1515103.StructureMultiple-choice1515104.ReadingMultiple-choice3030405.WritingComposition12030

Total

81100120PreparingthetestitemsanddirectionsReviewingandrevisingthetestmaterialsPre-testingandanalyzingtheresultsAssemblingthefinalformofthetestReproducingthetest

EvaluationoftheP-SApp.

---(1)themodelFirstattempttoprovidelanguagetestingpracticewithexplicitrationale;Amodeltomeasurebothgrammaticalcompetence/knowledgeoflanguageandpragmaticcompetence/languagesskills;Thetestsaredifficulttoprepare,buttheyareadministeredandscoredeasily,quicklyandconsistently;Itisanindirectabilitytest,givinginformationaboutlanguagemastery,notfutureperformance,whichmakesitdifficulttointerprettheresultsofthesetests.Besides,thetestscoresthemselvesdonothaveclearmeaning.Problems:1)Knowledgeoflanguageandlanguagesskillsarenotequallyorproperlyweightedwiththeformermoreemphasized;2)Thedivisionoffourbasicskillsdoesnotaccuratelyrepresentthewayinwhichaspeaker’slanguageactivitiesarenormallygroupedinreallife;

Improvement:Inadditiontogrammaticalknowledge,textual,rhetorical,pragmatic,sociolinguisticknowledgeshouldbeandcanbeincorporatedintheassessmentoflearner’slanguageskills;psychometric-structuralistapproachismore

than(>)multiple-choicetesting,eg.MC+IntervieworMC+compositionEvaluationoftheP-SApp.

---(2)theinstrumentsFrequentuseofdiscrete-point,orrather,multiple-choiceitemswhichhavethefollowingadvantages:1)Theycanbescoredeasily,quicklyandobjectively;2)Theymeasureconsistently;3)Eachitemcanaddressadistinctfeatureofthetestproficiencyandthuscanprovidemorediagnosticinformation;4)Thetestformatisquitematureandpracticable;Drawbacks:1)Difficulttoprepare,esp.thedistracters;2)Littleornoactiveproductiononthepartoftesttakers;3)Methodeffect;4)Negativewashbackonsubsequentlearning&teaching;5)Factorofguessing;3)TheIntegrative(Psycholinguistic-

sociolinguistic)Approach;Emergencein1960s&1970sofsociolinguistics,psycholinguistics,discourseanalysis,pragmaticsandHalliday’ssystemic-functionalgrammar:languageisstudiedinrelationtothecontextinwhichitisused;

Researchfindingsunderminedtheassumption,centraltothepsychometric-structuralistapproach,thatthereweredistinctdimensionstoproficiencyandthatspecifictestscouldprobetheminisolation.

JohnW.Oller’sproposalof“UnitaryCompetenceHypothesis”（整体语言能力假设）andPragmaticExpectancyGrammar

（语用预期语法）;Ollerbelievedthatlanguageisinvisibleandtheinvisiblefacultycanbemeasureddirectlybypragmatictestsincludingclozeanddictation;

Ollerchallengedtheneglectofcontextinlanguagetesting.Itinvolvesthetestingoflanguageincontextandisthusconcernedprimarilywithmeaning&totalcommunicativeeffectofdiscourse;Integrativetestsdonotseektoseparatelanguageskillsintoneatdivisionsinordertoimprovetestreliability:instead,theyareoftendesignedtoassessthelearner’sabilitytousetwoormoreskillssimultaneously.Thusintegrativetestsareconcernedwithglobalviewofproficiency;Characterizedbytheuseofcloze&dictation(mosttypical),oralinterviews,translationandessaywriting;

EvaluationofTheIntegrativeApproach

---(1)themodelBypragmaticexpectancygrammar

（语用预期语法）Ollerunitesalllexical,syntactic,semanticandpragmaticknowledgesourcesoftheuserplustheabilitytomobilizeandintegratetheminreallanguageactivities.Inadditiontoalltheselinguisticcapacities,thepragmaticexpectancygrammarmustalsoincludetheuser’sworldknowledgeandtheabilitytouseitintheirlanguageperformance.Thisrangeofcapacitiesisinvolvedinperforminganymeaningfullanguagetask.

GraphicpresentationofOller’sapproach

CriterionProficiency王振亚，58,LanguageTesting;156，现代语言测试模型LanguageTestperformanceMeasurement

ScorejudgmentresultsOllernevertolduswhatexactlythestructureofthepragmaticexpectancygrammarwas.ThestatisticalevidencefortheUCHwaslaterquestionedanddoubtedandcametoanendin1980s.Manyresearchers,includingOllerhimself,cametotheconclusionthatlanguageproficiencywasatleastpartiallydivisible---psychometricmodelcontinuestobeusedinspiteofitsdeficiency.EvaluationofTheIntegrativeApproach

---(2)theinstrumentsCloze

&dictationremainpopularinlanguagetesting;

Bothdictation&clozetestsareeasytoconstructandtheycanbescoredwithhighdegreeofobjectivity;Problems:ClozetestsareJustifiableintermsofconstructvalidity(ficiency),buthardtojustifyintermsofcontentvalidity;Clozetestsvaryinbothvalidityandreliability;Clozetestsaredifficultevenfornativespeakers;Dictationtestsaretime-consumingandboringtoscore.

IV)TheCommunicativeApproachItclaimstooperationalizetheoriesofcommunicativecompetenceandconcernedprimarilywithhowlanguageisusedincommunication;emphasizing

context,authenticityandsimulationofreal-lifeperformance;BothlanguageUsage(languagepatterns:grammars&lexicons)&Use(communicativefunctionanduse);Testbasedonneedsoflearners—suitability;Qualitativemodesofassessmentinpreferencetoquantitativeones---holisticscoring;ItissometimeslinkedtoIntegrativeApproach:Bothemphasizetheimportanceofmeaningofutteranceratherthantheirformandstructure,buttheformerpaysmoreattentionontheuseoflanguageincommunication.Referto

CommunicativeLanguageTeaching

CommunicativeLanguageTeaching

1)APPROACHOrigin:Britain,NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONALSYLLABUSbyWilkins,1972;Theoryoflanguage

ThefunctionalviewoflanguagebyHallidayistheprimaryonebehindthecommunicativemethod;anotherimpetusforthedevelopmentistheadvanceoftheconceptofCommunicativeCompetencebyDellHymes,1972Theoryoflearning1)activitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromotelearning2)activitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutmeaningfultaskspromotelearning3)languagethatismeaningfultothelearnerpromoteslearning2)Design(I)Objectives

HerearesomeoftheobjectivesofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching:

studentswilllearntouselanguageasameansofexpressionstudentswilluselanguageasameansofexpressingvaluesandjudgmentsstudentswilllearntoexpressthefunctionsthatbestmeettheirowncommunicationneeds.2)Design(II)Thesyllabus

Communicativelanguageteachingoftenusesafunctional-notionalsyllabus.Yalden(1987)hasclassifiedanumberofcommunicativesyllabustypes:

Structuralsyllabus

Topic

syllabusFunctionalsyllabusSituationalsyllabusSkillssyllabus2)DesignIIITypesoflearningtechniquesandactivities:Communicativelanguageteachingusesalmostanyactivitythatengageslearnersinauthenticcommunication.Littewood,howeverhasdistinguishedtwomajoractivitytypes:

1.functionalcommunicationactivities:onesaimedatdevelopingcertainlanguageskillsandfunctions,butwhichinvolvecommunication,suchasinformation-gapactivities

2.socialinteractionactivities:suchasconversationanddiscussionsessions,dialoguesandroleplays3)ProcedureItisdifficulttosummarizetheprocedureincommunicativeclassesbecauseofthewidevarietyofactivitiesused.TwomaincategoriesofCommunicativeActivities:

1)FunctionalCommunicativeactivities:

Information-gaptasks---Identifyingpictures,Discoveringmissinginformation,Discoveringdifferences,Followingdirections,Poolinginformationtosolveproblem;

2)Socialinteractionactivities:

Role-playing---Role-playingthroughcueddialogues,Role-playingthroughcuesandinformation,Role-playingthroughsituationandgoals,Role-playingthroughdebateordiscussion,Simulationactivities,Improvisation;

Carroll’smodelofcommunicativeperformancetestingLanguage

Criterionperformance

ListeningSpeakingConversation(oral)CommunicativeinteractionCorrespondence(graphic)

ReadingWriting

NeedsanalysisTestperformanceMeasurementScoreJudgmentResult

交际语言测试

communicativelanguagetesting(CLT)真实性/互动性是CLT的灵魂

(1)重点是意义；

(2)语境化(contextualized);

(3)语言活动带有可接受的目的性(purposive);

(4)有实际意义的语言;

(5)使用真实的语言材料(authenticmaterial);

(6)文本处理有真实性;

(7)反应结果不可预见性(unpredictable);

(8)以互动为基础(interaction-based);

(9)考生在真实心理状态下展示语言能力;

(10)根据实际交际结果判定成绩。（Weir1990）Evaluationof

TheCommunicativeApproachAdvantages1)Communicativetestssimulatelanguagebehaviorinrealcommunication,estsofproductiveskills:speakingandwriting---moreauthenticityandfacevalidity2)Theyenabletestuserstomaketheconnectionbetweentestperformanceandfuturelanguagebehavior:prediction;3)Theyaretiedtorealworldskillswhicharepracticedintheprocessoflanguagelearning---positivewashbackontothecurriculum;Disadvantages1)Noneoftheversionsofcommunicativecompetencepresentsanadequatetheoryaboutcommunication,whichmakescommunicativetestsweakintheirtheoretical