促进增长与创新的新移民战略 A New Migration Strategy for Growth and Innovation 2023 -BCG

PUBLICaTIONTITLE

ANewMigration

StrategyforGrowth

andInnovation

March2023

ByJohannHarnoss,JaninaKugel,MarleyFinley,

DanyBahar,HillelRapoport,andRebekahSmith

BostonConsultingGrouppartnerswithleadersinbusinessandsocietytotackletheirmostimportantchallengesandcapturetheirgreatestopportunities.BCGwasthepioneerinbusinessstrategywhenitwasfoundedin1963.Today,weworkcloselywithclientstoembraceatransformationalapproachaimedatbenefitingallstakeholders—empoweringorganizationstogrow,buildsustainablecompetitiveadvantage,anddrivepositivesocietalimpact.

Ourdiverse,globalteamsbringdeepindustryandfunctionalexpertiseandarangeofperspectivesthatquestionthestatusquoandsparkchange.BCGdeliverssolutionsthroughleading-edgemanagementconsulting,technologyanddesign,andcorporateanddigitalventures.Weworkinauniquelycollaborativemodelacrossthefirmandthroughoutalllevelsoftheclientorganization,fueledbythegoalofhelpingourclientsthriveandenablingthemtomaketheworldabetterplace.

TheBCGHendersonInstituteisBostonConsultingGroup’sstrategythinktank,dedicatedtoexploringanddevelopingvaluablenewinsightsfrombusiness,technology,andsciencebyembracingthepowerfultechnologyofideas.TheInstituteengagesleadersinprovocativediscussionandexperimentationtoexpandtheboundariesofbusinesstheoryandpracticeandtotranslateinnovativeideasfromwithinandbeyondbusiness.FormoreideasandinspirationfromtheInstitute,pleasevisit/featured-insights/thought-leadership-ideas.aspx

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BOSTONCONSULTINGGROUP|BCGHENDERSONINSTITUTE

aNewMigrationStrategyforGrowthandInnovation

Agoalwithoutaplanisjustawish.

—AntoinedeSaint-Exupéry,Frenchwriterandpilot

F

ewofuswouldimagineit:innovation,perhapsthemostpondered,probed,andpursuedofbusinessandsocietalimperativestoday,isonthedecline.1Solutionstothecriticalchallengeswefacedependnotonlyonahandfulofexceptionalindividualswithbreakthroughideas,butonthebroadarrayofpeoplewhohelprealizethoseideasbykeepingtheenginesrunningandgreasingthewheelsofprogress.Anessentialingredientinthismixismigration:acountry’sblendoftalentofferedbypopulationsdrawnfrombeyonditsborders—theirbrainpowerandbrawn,theirgeniusandcommonsense,andtheircreativityandfreshperspectives.Countriesandcitiesthatoptimizetheirmigrationmixforeconomicpotentialcanreapsignifi-cantcompetitiveadvantage,nowandinthedecadesahead.

Yetmostpolicymakershavefailedtorecognizethisoppor-tunity.Inthisreport,wepresentathree-factorframeworkthatcanhelppublicleadersstimulateeconomicgrowththroughmigrationpolicy.BCG’sGlobalTalentMigrationIndex(GTMix)describestheelementsofawinningmigra-tionmix—onethatcorrelatessquarelywithgreaterproduc-tivityandinnovation,aswellaswithpublicacceptanceofimmigrantworkers.Thisnovel,research-backedframeworkcanhelppolicymakersunderstandthecurrentstateoftheirmigrationstrategy,benchmarkitagainstthecorre-spondingstrategiesofothercountries,andultimatelydesignpoliciesthatwillmaketheireconomymorevibrant,moreinnovative,andmoreresilient.

MigrationPolicyTypicallyFocusesontheWrongElements

Muchofthepublicdiscourseonmigrationinadvancedeconomiesfocusesonmanagingimmigrationratherthanonproactivelyshapingit.Mostcountriesthatemployactiveattractionstrategiesaimtodrawinonlyasmallnumberof“highlyskilled”individuals.(Weputquotationmarksaround“highlyskilled”tounderscoretheconventional,relativelynarrowapplicationofthistermtoindividualswithadvanceddegrees,extensivebusinessortechnology

experience,orotherprestigiouscredentials.)Wecallthistraditionalviewthesmall-scaleskilledimmigrant(SSI)approach.Meanwhile,programstobroadenthemixortoexpand,reattract,orotherwiseengagewithanation’sownnetworkofemigrantsareseldompartoftheconversation.

IntheUS,forexample,93%ofemployment-basedimmi-grantvisasin2022wereawardedtoforeignnationalswithuniversitydegrees,demonstrated“high-skill”abilities,orqualifiedUSinvestments.Only3%wereallocatedtoso-called“unskilled”labor.

2

Likewise,intheworkpermitsystemthatChinaintroducedin2017,some78%ofworkpermitsarereservedexclusivelyfor“skilled”talent,withmuchoftheremaining22%allocatedtosimilarlyqualifiedworkersonashort-termbasis.3Fewcountriestrytoachieveorigindiversitywithintheirimmigrantpopulationortostrategicallycultivateabroademigrantdiaspora.

AlthoughSSI-basedpoliciesostensiblyintendtofillspecifictalentgaps,theymissthebroadereconomicopportunitythatmigrationrepresents.Foronething,suchpoliciesignorethesheervolumeofworkersneededtoreversewidespreadlaborshortages,todayandinthefuture.Asofmid-2022,theworld’s30largesteconomiesfacedanall-time-highemploymentgapofsome30millionunfilledjobs,representinganaggregate$1trillionto$3trillioninlostproductivityannually.Moreover,agingpopulationsinhigh-incomecountriessignalgreatershortagesahead.Specifically,tradeandservicesectorjobsareprojectedtobeamongthefastest-growingoccupationsinthenextdecade,butSSIpolicieslargelyexcludeforeignworkerswhoarewillingandabletofilltheseessentialroles.4Inaddition,thesepoliciesfailtomeaningfullyconnectcountriestothebreadthofperspectives,skills,andknowledgeavailableworldwide.Asaresult,countriesmissoutonanopportunitytofosterinnovation.

1.Bloom,Jones,VanReenen&Webb(2020),“areIdeasGettingHardertoFind?”AmericanEconomicReview110(4):1104–44.

2.USDepartmentofState(2022),“ReportoftheVisaOffice2022,”tableV,parts2and3.

3.

/news/china-work

-permits-are-you-a-b-c-tier-talent/.

4.

/ooh/fastest-growing.htm

.

2aNEWMIGRaTIONSTRaTEGYFORGROWTHaNDINNOVaTION

DespiterecentbreakthroughssuchasgenerativeAI,CRISPR,and3D-printedorgantransplants,theoverallrateoftechnologicalandscientificprogressisactuallyindecline.Overthepastseveraldecades,despitegreaterinvestment,innovationeffortsinfieldsasdiverseasagriculture,manufacturing,cancerresearch,andcomputinghaveyield-eddiminishingreturns.

(SeeExhibit1.)

Forexample,break-throughsintreatmentsforbreastcancer—alife-threateningdiseasethataffectsoneineightwomenworldwide—arebecominghardertoachieve.OrconsiderMoore’slaw:ittakes18timesasmanyresearcherstodaytodoublecom-puterchiptransistordensityasittookin1970.5Inviewofthebreadthandmagnitudeofsolutionsneededtoprotectandadvancesociety,countriesdesperatelyneedalaborforcewithgreaterpotentialtoinnovate.Theyneedpeoplewhobringabroadersetofproblem-solvingheuristics,whoaremoreconnectedtoglobalnetworksofknowledge,andwhoprovideasteadyinflowofnewskillsetsandexpertise.

ContrarytoSSIlogic,pursuingSTEMandotherso-called“highlyskilled”professionalsaloneisnotasoundimmigrationstrategy.Beyondscientists,researchers,technologists,andotherswhodiscover,invent,andinnovate,newideasrequireadeepwellofworkerstohelpadvance,execute,andcommer-cializethem.Morefundamentally,thisdeepwelliscrucialformaintainingafunctioningeconomythatcanadequatelymeetdemandforessentialservicesandproducts.

Anycountry’smigrationstrategymustaddresstwopoints:itmustdefineanidealmigrationmixforitsneeds,anditmustcreateaplantointegrateandengagemigrants.Althoughamplepracticalguidanceisavailableonthelatterpoint—through,forexample,the

MigrantIntegrationPolicy

Index

(MIPEX)—comparableguidanceontheformerislackinginpopulardiscourse.Aconsiderablebodyofaca-demicresearchexiststoinformthedevelopmentofaneconomicallystimulatingmigrationmix,butmostpolicy-makershavenotyetincorporatedtheseinsightsintotheirplanning.Thispublicationaimstofillthegapbetweenresearchandpolicypractice,notonlyidentifyingwhat“good”lookslike,butalsoofferingtacticaladviceonhowtobring“good”tolife.

AShiftinThinking

Torealizethepromiseofmigration,policymakersmustrethinkthreelong-heldassumptionsaboutthequantityofmigrantsneeded,thequalityofacountry’smigrationmix,andthedefinitionofmigrationasaone-wayactivity.

(See

Exhibit2.)

Weproposethefollowingthree-stepapproach:

Exhibit1-HumanProgressIsSlowing

GDPpercapitagrowthinhigh-incomecountries

Annualpercentagegrowth,five-yearaverage(%)

5

4

3

2

1

0

1960198020002020

Yearsoflifesavedper100,000people,perclinicaltrial

40

30

20

10

0

1980199020002010

HeartdiseaseBreastcancerAllcancers

Sources:GDPpercapitagrowthinhigh-incomecountriesgraph:WorldBanknationalaccountsdataandOECDnationalaccountsdata.Yearsoflifesavedper100,00people,perclinicaltrialgraph:adaptedfromBloom,Jones,VanReenen&Webb(2020),“areIdeasGettingHardertoFind?”Ameri-canEconomicReview,110(4):1104–44.(CopyrightamericanEconomicassociation;reproducedwithpermissionoftheAmericanEconomicReview.)

5.Bloom,Jones,VanReenen&Webb(2020),“areIdeasGettingHardertoFind?”AmericanEconomicReview110(4):1104–44.

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BOSTONCONSULTINGGROUP|BCGHENDERSONINSTITUTE

Diversity

Centrality

Exhibit2-TheGTMixEncompassesSixQuestionsofEconomicImpact

Quantity

Size

Pull

Howprevalentareimmigrantsinyourcountry?

Howmanyoftheworld'shighlyeducatedimmigrantshaveyouattracted?

Quality

Complexity

Hownationallydiverseisyourimmigrantpopulation?

Howeconomicallycomplexarethecountriesyourimmigrantscomefrom?

Connectivity

Circularity

Howcentralisyourcountryintheglobalmigrantnetwork?

Howmanyglobalmobileinventorsareyouattracting(orre-attracting)?

Source:BCGanalysis.

Note:GTMix=GlobalTalentMigrationIndex.

•Seekadditivevalue(quantity).Small-scaleimmigra-tionpoliciesoftenstemfromaviewofimmigrantsascompetition(displacingnativesfromjobs)orasafinancialburden(charitycasesthatdepletegovernmentresources)—orboth.Butratherthanprotectingdomesticpopulationsfromaneconomicthreat,strictandscarcevisasdeprivethemofaneconomicadvantage.Empiricalresearchshowsthatlargeimmigrantpopulationssustain,expand,andboosteconomicproductivityinreceivingcountries.Tounlockthesebenefits,amigrationstrategymustrecognizetheadditivevalueofimmigrantsascomplementsratherthancompetitors,andasresourcegainsratherthanresourcedrains.

•Expandthenotionof“skilled”(redefinequality).Migrationstrategiestodayrevolvearoundattracting

“skilled”talent—peoplewhotypicallyhaveanadvancededucationorexperienceinthesciencesorbusiness.Butallworkrequiresskillofsomesort,andskillsthatre-quireprestigiousdegreesandearnhigherincomesarenottheonlyskillsofvalue.Inmanycountries,traditionallaborskills(forexample,inconstructionandtransporta-tion)areinshortsupply,asareserviceskillsinsuchfast-growingsectorsashealthcare.Aninnovation-boostingmi-grationstrategyredefinesqualitytoencompassthediverseperspectivesandcomplexproductiveknowledgethatimmigrantscontributeacrossallskilltypesandlevels.

•Countconnectivityasabenefit.Immigrationisonlyhalfofthestory.Awinningmigrationstrategyalsocon-sidersdomesticworkerswhomoveabroad(emigrants).Justasmigrantsbringknowledgefromtheirplacesoforigintotheirdestinations,theyalsosendknowledgeandresourceshomethroughtheirpersonalconnectionsorupontheirreturn.Bothimmigrantsandemigrantsstrengthenacountry’spositionasaninternationalhubofproductivityandinnovation.

IntroducingtheGlobalTalentMigrationIndex

WedevelopedtheGlobalTalentMigrationIndex(GTMix)tohelpcountriesassessandshapetheirmigrationmix.Thisframework,drawnfromextensivetheoreticalandempiricalresearch,providesalensforpinpointingeconomicconsiderationsthatacountry’scurrentpoliciesmayoverlook.

TheGTMixmeasurescountriesonthethreecorefactors—quantity,quality,andconnectivity—usingdataonmigrantpopulations,economiccomplexity,andpatents.Thesefactorsarenotexhaustive,nordotheynecessarilytrans-lateintoimpact,especiallyifnotimplementedalongsideeffectiveintegrationstrategies.BecausetheGTMixassess-esactualmigrationpatterns,itdoesnotofferaqualitativeorcausalassessmentofpolicies.Nevertheless,itcanhelppublicleadersmeasuretheimpactofpastpoliciesanddesignfuturepoliciestospurdesiredmigrationpatterns

4aNEWMIGRaTIONSTRaTEGYFORGROWTHaNDINNOVaTION

Chile

t18

Size

Percentageofpopulationcomposedofimmigrants

2%

1%

Improvementinranking

t46

0.47%

Pull

.

t

t

Quantity.Thisfactorhastwocomponents:thetotalnum-berofinternationalworkersthatacountrybringsin(whichwetermsize)andtheglobalshareofhighlyeducatedimmi-grantsthatitattracts(whichwecallpull).Althoughmigra-tionstrategiestodayrecognizethevalueofthelatter,theyoftenignoretherelevanceofworkerswhoseskillsetslieoutsidethoseacquiredthroughauniversityeducation.Over-emphasisonattractingthehighlyeducatedignorestheneedforworkersintradeandservicesectors—generallycategorizedas“low-skilled”—whosecompetenciesareindemandandessentialforawell-oiledeconomy.Theseincludenurses,technicians,automechanics,constructionworkers,farmworkers,andahostofothervocationaltrades-people.Thus,highscoresinbothpullandsizearepositive.

Researchshowsthatbeyondfillingjobvacancies,migrantsofvaryingeducationallevelsfuelinnovationandstartbusinessesoftheirownatratesthatexceedthoseofnativeworkers.6Immigrantsmakeuproughly15%ofworkersintheUSbutaccountfor25%ofentrepreneursand25%ofinventors.7US-basedretailandtechgiantseBay,Kohl’s,andInstagram,startedbyimmigrantsfromFrance,Poland,andBrazil,generatebillionsofdollarsinannualincomeandtaxrevenueandemploytensofthousandsofpeople.8

Moreover,ratherthandisplacingorundercuttingnativeworkers,blue-collarimmigrantsoftenpropeldomestictalentintohigher-payingjobs.9Eventstudiesconsistentlyshowthatshort-termlabormarketcrowdingfromaninfluxofnewimmigrantshadnonegativeimpactonnativeworkeremploymentaftertenyears.10Infact,thereisevi-dencethatincreasingthesizeoftheimmigrantpopulationleadstogreaterworkforceparticipationofnativewomen

.1

1Sowhilecontinuingtoattractin-demand,“highlyskilled”workersremainsvaluable,attractingmigrantswhocanperformessentialmanualandvocationallaborandex-pandtheeconomythroughtheirentrepreneurialefforts,isimportant,too.

CountriesthatearnhighGTMixscoresonquantityincludeMiddleEasterncountrieswithmajority-immigrantpopula-tions,suchastheUnitedArabEmiratesandSaudiArabia,aswellasAustralia,Canada,andSwitzerland.ChileandThailandhaveraisedtheirGTMixquantityrankingdramati-callysince2000,morethandoublingtheirtotalimmigrantpopulationsandenjoyingevengreatergrowthintheirshareoftheworld’shighlyeducatedmigrants.

(SeeExhibit3.)

Exhibit3-TwoOutstandingQuantityClimbers:ChileandThailand

Thailand

20

5%

5%

t49

0.28%

Shareofimmigrantswith

post-secondaryeducation

002%

0.05%

2000

2020

2000

2020

Sources:UNPopulationDivisiondata;BCGanalysis.

6.

/how-immigrants-drive-entrepreneurship-invention-innovation/

.

7.

/2016/10/immigrants-play-a-disproportionate-role-in-american-entrepreneurship

.

8.

/90202816/some-of

-the-u-s-s-biggest-companies-are-founded-by-immigrants;

/content/dfe4f0d8-

8d25-11e5-a549-b89a1dfede9b

.

9.Peri&Sparber(2009),“TaskSpecialization,Immigration,andWages.”AmericanEconomicJournal:appliedEconomics1(3):135–69.

10.Card(1990),“TheImpactoftheMarielBoatliftontheMiamiLaborMarket,”ILRReview43(2):245–57;

/

sites/99ac61a3-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/99ac61a3-en

.

11.Cortés&Tessada(2011),“Low-SkilledImmigrationandtheLaborSupplyofHighlySkilledWomen,”AmericanEconomicJournal:AppliedEconomics3(3):88–123.

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t

Itisimportanttonotethatstrategiestoincreaseimmi-grantpopulationsizewithoutprovidingmeasurestosup-portmigrants,suchasprotectionsforhealth,welfare,andhumanrights,willfailonahumanitarianlevelandareunlikelytounlocktheeconomicpotentialofavibrantmigrationmix.

Quality.Thisfactorconsistsoftwosubfactors,whichwetermdiversityandcomplexity.Diversityreflectsthehetero-geneityofnationalorigins,whichinturnreflectsdifferentwaysofthinking.Geographicdiversityisitselfasourceofinnovation,offeringabroadarrayofperspectivesthatfuelnoveltyandcreativity.Researchershavefoundastatistical-lysignificantcorrelationbetweengreatervarietyoforiginsinacountry’simmigrantpopulationandincreasedlong-termincomelevelsandproductivity;inmoreeconomicallyadvancedcountries,thatcorrelationextendstoinnovative-nessaswell

.1

2

Complexityinvolvestheextenttowhichimmigrantsimportadvancedexpertiseinproductivework,suchasagriculture,recycling,ornewproductorservicedevelopment.Migrantstransmitspecificknowledgeofbestpracticesfromtheirhomelandsaroundtheworld—whetheritcomesfromdirectexpertiseorsimplyfamiliaritywiththeirhomeecon-omy’sindustries.Infact,researchshowsthatimmigrants

fromcountriesthatareadvancedincertainindustriesboosttheproductivityofthosesameindustriesintheirreceivingcountries.Forexample,migrationbetweenTanza-niaandKenyahelpedgrowtheformer’ssoapindustry.Similarly,ChileanemigrantsinSwedenhavehelpedad-vanceChile’spaperproductsindustry.

1

3Thisphenomenoncanalsobeobservedattheindividuallevel.Danone,themajoryogurtbrand(DannonintheUS),wasfoundedinBarcelonabyaGreekimmigrantwhoimported,alongwithhisknowledge,bacterialculturesfromEasternEuropetointroducetheprobioticdigestiveaidtotheWest

.1

4

Tounderstandhowdiversityandcomplexityplayout,considerIndonesia,whosemigrationmixqualityhassky-rocketedsince2000.

(SeeExhibit4.)

Indiversity,Indonesiaincreasedtheprobabilitythattworandomimmigrantswouldbefromdifferenthomecountriesfrom60%in2000to90%in2020.AndwhereasIndonesiarankedinthebottomtenincomplexityamongthe100countriesstudiedin2000,itrankedfourthhighestin2020.Thisdramaticriseisafunctionofchangesincountriesoforigin(notably,greaterrepresentationofimmigrantsfromSouthKorea,Singapore,theUS,andtheUK)andoftheheightenedeconomiccomplexityoftheleadingplacesoforigin,suchasChina,India,andJapan.

Exhibit4-TwoQualityStandouts:IndonesiaandtheNetherlands

Indonesia

Netherlands

t

5

47t

96%

Diversity

Probabilityoftworandomimmigrantsbeingfromdifferentorigins

93%

89%

61%

tent

t

22

88

1.1

Complexity

0.3

0.2

Weighted-averageeconomic

complexityindexof

immigrantorigins

–0.6

2000

2020

2000

2020

Sources:UNPopulationDivisiondata;HarvardGrowthLab’sEconomicComplexityIndex;BCGanalysis.

12.alesina,Harnoss&Rapoport(2016),“Birthplacediversityandeconomicprosperity,”JournalofEconomicGrowth21(2),101–38.

13.Bahar&Rapoport(2018),“Migration,KnowledgeDiffusion,andtheComparativeAdvantageofNations,”EconomicJournal128(612):F273–F305.

14.Bailey(1997),MarketingandPricingofMilkandDairyProductsintheUnitedStates,IowaStateUniversityPress.

6aNEWMIGRaTIONSTRaTEGYFORGROWTHaNDINNOVaTION

UK

Switzerland

TheNetherlands,whichhashistoricallydependedonimmi-grationforpopulationgrowth,sawmarkedimprovementindiversitysincetheturnofthemillennium.Itrosefiveplacesindiversitytoranksixthoverallin2020.Itsadvanceincom-plexitywasevenmoreimpressive,asitrose22places.

Connectivity.Connectivitygaugestheextenttowhichacountryrecognizesthevalueofbothimmigrationandemi-grationaswaystoaccessglobalknowledge.Itiscomposedoftwofactors:centrality,whichwedefineasthedegreetowhichacountryisahubintheglobalmigrantnetwork;andcircularity,ourtermfortheextenttowhichinternation-alinventors—immigrantsandreturnemigrants—passthroughthecountry.

Manypeopleassociatetheintuitiveconceptofmigrantsasconduitsfortransferringinformationacrossborderswithfearof“braindrain.”Although“braindrain”(asinthelossofdoctorsorotheressentialworkers)canbearealconcern,thenotionthatcountriesgenerallyloseknowledgewheneducatedworkersemigrateismisleading.Researchshowsthatemigrationactuallyproducesa“braingain”bycon-nectingsendingcountriestotheaggregate“globalbrain”andtheglobaleconomy

.1

5Socountriesshouldnotoverlookthevalueofatwo-wayapproach.Bothimmigrationand

emigrationbringinvaluableknowledge,financialopportu-nities,andbusinessconnections.Theflowsbetweenandamongcountriesrepresentstrategicopportunitiesforaccessingandsharinginformation,forgingcollaborations,andultimatelybolsteringinnovation.

Emigrantworkers,likeimmigrants,transmitindustrialknow-howhomefromtheirreceivingcountries

.1

6Thisistrueofbothwhite-andblue-collarworkers.Forexample,afterthe2011Greekfinancialcrisis,entrepreneurialmigrantsreturn-inghometoAlbaniadrovetheagriculturalsector’stransitionfromsubsistencetocommercial,boostingwagesandex-pandingjobopportunitiesfornon-emigrantAlbanianwork-ers

.1

7Inthesamevein,inventorsseemajorquantitativeandqualitative(asmeasuredbyfrequencyofcitation)boostsinpatentingafterworkingindifferentcountriesandwhenteamingwithotherglobalmobileinventors

.1

8

(SeeExhibit5.)

ThemostrecentpatentfromImpossibleFoods,theSiliconValleyunicorn,credits11inventorswhohaveworkedinorhailfromsuchcountriesasCanada,China,Iran,Russia,Singapore,Spain,andtheUK

.1

9Iranian-bornophthalmolo-gistDr.GholamPeyman,whoreceivedhismedicaldoctorateinGermany,developedLasiksurgeryaftermovingtotheUSandjoiningthefacultyattheUniversityofIllinois.

Exhibit5-USandChinaareTopGlobalMobileInventorHotSpots

Numberofglobalmobileinventors

(inthousands)

20

17.6

5.5

5

2.8

2.7

2.5

2.0

2.3

1.0

1.3

0.9

0

US

Japan

SouthKorea

ChinaGermanyCanadaIndiaFrance

CountryofresidenceduringpatentfilingAdditionalGMIsin2020TotalGMIsin2000

Source:Bahar,Choudhury,Miguelez&Signorelli,“GlobalMobileInventors”(mimeo),workingpaper.

Note:GMI=globalmobileinventor.

15.

/article/myth-brain-drain-how-emigration-can-help-poor-countries-harvard-political-review

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16.Bahar&Rapoport(2018),“Migration,KnowledgeDiffusion,andtheComparativeAdvantageofNations,”EconomicJournal128(612):F273–F305.

17.

/article/eeeeecrev/v_3a101_3ay_3a2018_3ai_3ac_3ap_3a101-132.htm

.

18.Bahar,Choudhury,Miguelez&Signorelli,“GlobalMobileI