简明英语语言学教程

简明英语语言学教程第1页/共67页Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.4.1Whatissyntax?thecompositionofsentences:word-levelcategories&phrasecategories;rulesgoverningtheorganizationofdifferentcategoriesintolargerstructuralunits:phrasestructurerule&sentenceruleSyntax:(Greek)arrangement第2页/共67页Discussion:Whatcanyoufillinthecontext“The________issmiling.”?4.2Categories第3页/共67页Discussion:Ishereallythatkind?Theycanfishhere.4.2CategoriesDiscussthepossiblemeaningsofthefollowingsentences.Whatcausesthedifferentinterpretationsofeachofthesesentences?第4页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesCategory:agroupoflinguisticitems(asentence,anounphrase,averb)whichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguage.4.2CategoriesSyntacticcategory:aword(calledaword/lexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledaphrasecategory)thatperformsaparticularfunctioninasentence.1)Definition第5页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesMajorlexicalcategory:(heads)Noun,Verb,Adjective,Preposition4.2Categories2)TypesMinorlexicalcategory:Determiner,Degreewords,Qualifier,Auxiliary,Conjunction第6页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesMeaning:wordcategoriesbearrelationshipwithmeaningn.:entities(humanbeings,objects)v.:action,sensations,statesadj.:attributeofentitiesadv.:thepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstates4.2Categories3)Threecriteriaareusedtodetermineaword’scategory.第7页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesInflection:wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.n.:-sv.:-ed,-ingadj.:-er,-est

4.2Categories3)Threecriteriaareusedtodetermineaword’scategory.第8页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesdistribution:whattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.n.:determinerv.:auxiliaryadj.:degreeword

4.2Categories3)Threecriteriaareusedtodetermineaword’scategory.第9页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesTheoldladysuddenlyleft.

4.2CategoriesExercise:Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.DetANQualV

Thecarstoppedattheendoftheroad.

DetNVPDetNPDetN

第10页/共67页1.Word-levelcategoriesThesnowmighthaveblockedtheroad.

4.2CategoriesExercise:Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.DetAAuxAuxVDetN

Heneverappearsquitemature.

NQualVDegA

第11页/共67页2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2CategoriesDiscussion:Whichsentenceisnotconsideredgrammatical?a.Thestudentlikedthelinguisticslecture.b.Thelinguisticslecturelikedthestudent.c.Likedthestudentthelinguisticslecture.a.Johnhituponanidea.b.AnideahituponJohn.c.AnhitJohnuponidea.第12页/共67页2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2Categoriesphrases:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.Phrasecategoryisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP),prepositionalphrase(PP)第13页/共67页2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2CategoriesDiscusswithyourdeskmatewhetherthefollowingphraseshavethesamestructuralmechanism.NP:thestudentwholikeslinguisticsAP:verycuriousoftheanswerVP:quitelikePekingOperaPP:rightintheparkDiscussion:第14页/共67页2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2Categorieshead:thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedspecifiers:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadscomplements:thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrases:oneword/morethanoneword第15页/共67页grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase4.3PhrasestructureruleNP→(Det)N(PP)…VP→(Qual)V(NP)…AP→(Deg)A(PP)…PP→(Deg)P(NP)…第16页/共67页1.XPrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleNP→(Det)N(PP)…VP→(Qual)V(NP)…AP→(Deg)A(PP)…PP→(Deg)P(NP)…XP→(specifier)X(complement)↓Arethereanystructuralsimilaritiesamongtheserules?head第17页/共67页Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.4.3Phrasestructurerule1)fullofpeopleAPAPNfullofpeople第18页/共67页2)astoryaboutasentimentalgirlNPaDetNPPPstoryaNPNPPDetANaboutsentimentalgirl第19页/共67页3)oftenreaddetectivestoriesVPQualNPoftenNAdetectiveVreadstories第20页/共67页4)theargumentagainsttheproposals5)movetowardsthewindowMoreExercises:第21页/共67页2.Coordinationrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleCoordinatestructures:thephrasesformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionlikeand,

or,

andbut.第22页/共67页2.Coordinationrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleDiscussion:Canyoulengthenthefollowingsentencesbyusingcoordinatestructures?John,_________________likedthebook.Hewashedhisface,________.第23页/共67页2.Coordinationrule:propertiesofcoordinationNolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategories;Acategoryatanylevel(ahead/anXP);Thesametypeofcoordinatedcategories;Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephrase=thecategorytypeoftheconjoinedelements第24页/共67页2.Coordinationrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleX→X*ConX↓acategoryatanystructurallevel(XorXP)第25页/共67页1.Specifiers4.4Phraseelements1)Definition:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsSemantically,makemoreprecisethemeaningoftheheadSyntactically,markaphraseboundary第26页/共67页1.Specifiers4.4Phraseelements2)Syntacticcategory:dependonthecategoryoftheheadHeads:N→Specifiers:Dettheboy,hishouseHeads:V→Specifiers:Qualnevergiveup,oftenwatchHeads:A/P→Specifiers:Degverygood,morebeautiful,rightin第27页/共67页2.Complements4.4Phraseelementsphrasesthatprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningoftheheade.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;

angryaboutthenews;

intheroom;

closethewindow.

第28页/共67页2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsSubcategorization:theinformationaboutaword’scomplement,whichisincludedinthehead(whatkindofcomplementisneeded,weshouldseeitshead)Starsdisappeared.(nocomplement)Shecutherself.(onecomplement)Hegavemetheletter.(twocomplements)第29页/共67页2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsTheXPRule(revised)XP→(Specifier)X(Complement*)第30页/共67页2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsComplementizers(Cs):wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementComplementclause(CC):thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizerMissHerbertbelieves

thatshewillwin.

↓

↓↓matrixclauseCs+CC=CP第31页/共67页2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsIamsure

thatshewillcome.Heheldthebelief

thathewouldfindajob.Wetalkedabouthowwespendtheholiday.第32页/共67页3.Modifiers4.4PhraseelementstheelementsthatspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesoftheheadsModifiersofNs:APatallslendergirlModifiersofVs:AdvP&PPreadcarefully,carefullyread,landwithcaution第33页/共67页3.Modifiers4.4PhraseelementsTheExpandedXPrule:XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)第34页/共67页4.5Sentences(TheSRule)S→NPVPInflp(=S)NPInflVPSpecifierHeadComplement第35页/共67页InflrealizedbyatenselabelInflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNPstNPVDetNAboyfoundthebook4.5Sentences(TheSRule)第36页/共67页InflpositionrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNwillNPVDetNTheteacherexplaintheterm4.5Sentences(TheSRule)第37页/共67页e.g.Anunusualeventoccurredbeforethemeeting.Inflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNPstPPVPNPAneventoccurredbeforetheADetNmeetingunusual第38页/共67页Exercise:Aquaintoldhouseappearedonthegrassyhill.Inflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNPPstPPVPNPADetNANA第39页/共67页4.6.1Auxiliarymovement4.6TransformationsHowaretheyes-noquestionstructuresbuilt?TheauxiliaryoccupiesthenormalpositioninInfl(head).InversionmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontotheleftofthesubject.Twosteps:第40页/共67页MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Inversion:MoveInfltoC.SNPInflVPDetNwillVthetrainarriveCPC4.6.1Auxiliarymovement第41页/共67页4.6.1AuxiliarymovementSNPInflVPDetNeVthetrainarriveCPInflWillCtrace,headmovement第42页/共67页4.6.2DoinsertionSNPInflVPNNonpstVbirdsflyCPCHowdoweformayes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInfl?Birdsfly.第43页/共67页4.6.2DoinsertionSNPInflVPNdoVbirdsflyCPCInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.第44页/共67页4.6.2DoinsertionSNPInflVPNeVbirdsflyCPInflDoCInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.第45页/共67页4.6.3Deepstructureandsurfacestructure1.Deepstructure:(D-structure)alevelofsyntacticstructureformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.2.Surfacestructure:(S-structure)alevelofsyntacticstructure,thefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations.第46页/共67页DeepstructureSNPInflVPDetNVthetrainarrivewillWillthetrainarrive?第47页/共67页SurfacestructureSNPInflVPDetNeVthetrainarriveCPInflWillCWillthetrainarrive?第48页/共67页SurfacestructureWillthetrainarrive?_______thetrainarrive?Will第49页/共67页SyntacticMechanismsInvolvedinTransformational-GenerativeGrammarDEEPSTRUCTURE↓Transformations↓SURFACESTRUCTURESubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements←→thephrasalstructures→themovementofcategoriesTheXPRule↓第50页/共67页Whentransformationsarenotnecessary,therepresentationsofthetwolevelsofstructurearethesame.Inflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNwillNPVDetNTheteacherexplaintheterm第51页/共67页4.6.4WhMovementWhatwillyoutalkabout?Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?DeepStructuresyouwilltalkaboutwhatyoucanspeakwhatlanguages第52页/共67页Whatwillyoutalkabout?SNPInflVPNtalkVYouwhatCPwillVPNPPaboutCDeepStructure第53页/共67页SurfaceStructureSNPInflVPNtalkVYoueCPeVPNPPaboutNPNWhatwillCWhMovementMoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.第54页/共67页Whowonthegame?SNPInflVPNwonWhogameCPVNPthePstDetNCDeepStructure第55页/共67页Whowonthegame?SNPInflVPNwongameCPVNPthePstNPWhoNCeSurfaceStructureDet第56页/共67页Whatdidyoueatforlunch?SNPInflVPeatforCPVNPwhatdidNNPPPlunchCyouDeepStructureN第57页/共67页Whatdidyoueatforlunch?SNPInflVPeatforCPVNPedidNNPPPlunchNPNwhateInflCyouSurfaceStructureN第58页/共67页Shehasfinallyfoundthemanwhomsheloves.DeepS