国外组织行为学课件皮尔森ch07

Chapter7GroupsandTeamworkLearningObjectivesDefinegroupsanddistinguishbetweenformalandinformalgroups.Discussgroupdevelopment.Explainhowgroupsizeandmemberdiversityinfluencewhatoccursingroups.LearningObjectives(continued)Reviewhownorms,roles,andstatusaffectsocialinteraction.Discussthecausesandconsequencesofgroupcohesiveness.Explainthedynamicsofsocialloafing.LearningObjectives(continued)Discusshowtodesignandsupportself-managedteams.Explainthelogicbehindcross-functional

teamsanddescribehowtheycanoperateeffectively.Understandvirtualteamsandwhatmakesthemeffective.WhatIsaGroup?Agroupconsistsoftwoormorepeopleinteractinginterdependentlytoachieveacommongoal.Interactionisthemostbasicaspectofagroup.Interdependencemeansthatgroupmembersrelytosomedegreeoneachothertoaccomplishgoals.WhatIsaGroup?(continued)Whyisgroupmembershipimportant?Groupsexertinfluenceonus.Groupsprovideacontextinwhichweareabletoexertinfluenceonothers.FormalWorkGroupsFormalworkgroupsaregroupsthatareestablishedbyorganizationstofacilitatetheachievementoforganizationalgoals.Themostcommonformalgroupconsistsofamanagerandtheemployeeswhoreporttothemanager.Othertypesofformalworkgroups:TaskforcesCommitteesInformalGroupsInformalgroupsaregroupsthatemergenaturallyinresponsetothecommoninterestsoforganizationalmembers.Theyareseldomsanctionedbytheorganization.Informalgroupscaneitherhelporhurtanorganization,dependingontheirnormsforbehaviour.GroupDevelopmentGroupsarecomplexsocialdevices.Theyrequireafairamountofnegotiationandtrial-and-errorbeforeindividualmembersbegintofunctionasatruegroup.Howdogroupsdevelop?TypicalStagesofGroupDevelopmentGroupsdevelopthroughaseriesofstagesovertime.Eachstagepresentsthememberswithaseriesofchallengestheymustmastertoachievethenextstage.Thestagesmodelisagoodtoolformonitoringandtroubleshootinghowgroupsaredeveloping.TypicalStagesofGroupDevelopment(continued)Notallgroupsgothroughthesestages.Theprocessappliesmainlytonewgroupsthathavenevermetbefore.StagesofGroupDevelopmentFormingGroupmemberstrytoorientthemselvesby“testingthewaters.”Thesituationisoftenambiguous,andmembersareawareoftheirdependencyoneachother.StormingConflictoftenemergesatthisstage.Confrontationandcriticismoccurasmembersdeterminewhethertheywillgoalongwiththewaythegroupisdeveloping.Sortingoutrolesandresponsibilitiesisoftenatissue.NormingMembersresolvetheissuesthatprovokedthestorming,andtheydevelopsocialconsensus.Compromiseisoftennecessary.Normsareagreedonandthegroupbecomesmorecohesive.Informationandopinionsflowfreely.PerformingThegroupdevotesitsenergiestowardtaskaccomplishment.Achievement,creativity,andmutualassistanceareprominentthemesatthisstage.AdjourningRitesandritualsthataffirmthegroup’sprevioussuccessfuldevelopmentarecommon.Membersoftenexhibitemotionalsupportforeachother.PunctuatedEquilibriumModelAmodelofgroupdevelopmentthatdescribeshowgroupswithdeadlinesareaffectedbytheirfirstmeetingsandcrucialmidpointtransitions.Equilibriummeansstability.Stretchesofgroupstabilitypunctuatedbyacriticalfirstmeeting,amidpointchangeingroupactivity,andarushtotaskcompletion.Doesthesequencesoundfamiliartoyou?Phase1Beginswiththefirstmeetingandcontinuesuntilthemidpointinthegroup’sexistence.Thefirstmeetingiscriticalinsettingtheagendaforwhatwillhappenintheremainderofthephase.Thegroupmakeslittlevisibleprogresstowardthegoal.MidpointTransitionOccursatalmostexactlythehalfwaypointintimetowardthegroup’sdeadline.Thetransitionmarksachangeinthegroup’sapproach.Howthegroupmanagesitiscriticalforthegrouptoshowprogress.Thistransitioncrystallizesthegroup’sactivitiesforPhase2.Phase2DecisionsandapproachesadoptedatthemidpointgetplayedoutinPhase2.Itconcludeswithafinalmeetingthatrevealsaburstofactivityandaconcernforhowoutsiderswillevaluatetheproduct.ThePunctuatedEquilibriumModelofGroupDevelopmentforTwoGroupsPunctuatedEquilibriumModel(continued)Adviceformanagingteams:Preparecarefullyforthefirstmeeting.Aslongaspeopleareworking,donotlookforradicalprogressduringPhase1.Managethemidpointtransitioncarefully.BesurethatadequateresourcesareavailabletoactuallyexecutethePhase2plan.Resistdeadlinechanges.GroupStructureandItsConsequencesGroupstructurereferstothecharacteristicsofthestablesocialorganizationofagroup-thewayagroupis“puttogether.”Themostbasicstructuralcharacteristicsalongwhichgroupsvaryaresizeandmemberdiversity.Otherstructuralcharacteristicsaregroupnorms,roles,status,andcohesiveness.GroupSizeThesmallestpossiblegroupconsistsoftwopeople,suchasamanagerandaparticularemployee.Inpractice,mostworkgroups,includingtaskforcesandcommittees,usuallyhavebetween3and20members.GroupSizeandSatisfactionMembersoflargergroupsconsistentlyreportlesssatisfactionwithgroupmembershipthanthoseinsmallergroups.Chancetoworkonanddevelopfriendshipsdecreaseassizeincreases.Largergroupsmightpromptconflictanddissension.GroupSizeandSatisfaction(continued)Manypeopleareinhibitedaboutparticipatinginlargergroups.Inlargegroups,individualmembersidentifylesseasilywiththesuccessandaccomplishmentsofthegroup.GroupSizeandPerformanceDolargegroupsperformtasksbetterthansmallgroups?Therelationshipbetweengroupsizeandperformancedependsonthetaskthegroupneedstoaccomplishandonhowwedefinegoodperformance.Typesoftasks:AdditivetasksDisjunctivetasksConjunctivetasksAdditiveTasksTasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentonthesumoftheperformanceofindividualgroupmembers.Foradditivetasks,thepotentialperformanceofthegroupincreaseswithgroupsize.DisjunctiveTasksTasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentontheperformanceofthebestgroupmember.Thepotentialperformanceofgroupsdoingdisjunctivetasksincreaseswithgroupsize.ProcessLossesGroupperformancedifficultiesstemmingfromtheproblemsofmotivatingandcoordinatinglargergroups.Asgroupsperformingtasksgetbigger,theytendtosufferfromprocesslosses.Problemsofcommunicationanddecisionmakingincreasewithsize.

Actualperformance=

Potentialperformance–ProcesslossesGroupSize,Productivity,andProcessLossesGroupSize,Productivity,andProcessLossesGroupSize,Productivity,andProcessLossesProcessLosses(continued)Potentialperformanceandprocesslossesincreasewithgroupsizeforadditiveanddisjunctivetasks.Actualperformanceincreaseswithsizeuptoapointandthenfallsoff.Theaverageperformanceofgroupmembersdecreasesassizegetsbigger.ProcessLosses(continued)Thus,uptoapoint,largergroupsmightperformbetterasgroups,buttheirindividualmemberstendtobelessefficient.ConjunctiveTasksTasksinwhichgroupperformanceislimitedbytheperformanceofthepoorestgroupmember.Boththepotentialandactualperformanceofconjunctivetaskswoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.GroupSizeandPerformance:SummaryForadditiveanddisjunctivetasks,largergroupsmightperformbetteruptoapointbutatincreasingcoststotheefficiencyofindividualmembers.Performanceonpurelyconjunctivetasksshoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.DiversityofGroupMembershipDiversegroupshaveamoredifficulttimecommunicatingeffectivelyandbecomingcohesive.Diversegroupsmighttakelongertodotheirforming,storming,andnorming.Oncetheydodevelop,moreandlessdiversegroupsareequallycohesiveandproductive.DiversityofGroupMembership(continued)Diversegroupssometimesperformbetterwhenthetaskrequirescognitive,creativity-demandingtasks,andproblem-solving.Ingeneral,anynegativeeffectsof“surfacediversity”inage,gender,orraceseemtowearoffovertime.“Deepdiversity”inattitudestowardworkorhowtoaccomplishagoalcanbadlydamagecohesiveness.GroupNormsSocialnormsarecollectiveexpectationsthatmembersofsocialunitshaveregardingthebehaviourofeachother.Theyarecodesofconductthatspecifythestandardsagainstwhichweevaluatetheappropriatenessofbehaviour.Mostnormativeinfluenceisunconscious;weareonlyawareofitinspecialcircumstances.NormDevelopmentWhydonormsdevelop?Normsprovideregularityandpredictabilitytobehaviour.Whatdonormsdevelopabout?Normsdevelopaboutbehavioursthatareatleastmarginallyimportanttotheirsupporters.Howdonormsdevelop?Sharedattitudesamongmembersofagroupformthebasisfornorms.NormDevelopment(continued)Whydoindividualscomplywithnorms?Thenormcorrespondstoprivatelyheldattitudes.Theyoftensavetimeandpreventsocialconfusion.Groupshavearangeofrewardsandpunishmentsavailabletoinduceconformitytonorms.SomeTypicalNormsSometypesofnormsthatexistinmostorganizationsandaffectthebehaviourofmembersinclude:DressnormsRewardallocationnorms(equity,equality,reciprocity,socialresponsibility)PerformancenormsRolesPositionsinagroupthathaveasetofexpectedbehavioursattachedtothem.Rolesrepresent“packages”ofnormsthatapplytoparticulargroupmembers.Therearetwobasickindsofrolesinorganizations:AssignedrolesEmergentrolesRoleAmbiguityRoleambiguityexistswhenthegoalsofone’sjoborthemethodsofperformingitareunclear.Thereareavarietyofelementsthatcanleadtoroleambiguity:OrganizationalfactorsTherolesenderThefocalpersonAModeloftheRoleAssumptionProcessRoleAmbiguity(continued)Whatarethepracticalconsequencesofroleambiguity?Themostfrequentoutcomesarejobstress,dissatisfaction,reducedorganizationalcommitment,lowerperformance,andintentionstoquit.Managerscanreduceroleambiguitybyprovidingclearperformanceexpectationsandperformancefeedback.RoleConflictRoleconflictexistswhenanindividualisfacedwithincompatibleroleexpectations.Therearefourtypesofroleconflict:IntrasenderroleconflictIntersenderroleconflictInterroleconflictPerson-roleconflictIntrasenderRoleConflictAsinglerolesenderprovidesincompatibleroleexpectationstoaroleoccupant.Thistypeofroleconflictisespeciallylikelytoalsoprovokeambiguity.IntersenderRoleConflictTwoormorerolesendersprovidearoleoccupantwithincompatibleexpectations.Employeeswhostraddletheboundarybetweentheorganizationanditsclientsorcustomersareespeciallylikelytoencounterthisformofconflict.Itcanalsostemfromwithintheorganization.InterroleConflictSeveralrolesheldbyaroleoccupantinvolveincompatibleexpectations.Competingdemandsforone’stimeareafrequentsymptomofinterroleconflict.Person-RoleConflictRoledemandscallforbehaviourthatisincompatiblewiththepersonalityorskillsofaroleoccupant.Manyexamplesof“whistle-blowing”aresignalsofperson-roleconflict.Theorganizationhasdemandedsomerolebehaviourthattheoccupantconsidersunethical.RoleConflict:ConsequencesThemostconsistentconsequencesofroleconflictarejobdissatisfaction,stressreactions,loweredorganizationalcommitment,andturnoverintentions.RoleConflict(continued)Managerscanhelppreventemployeeroleconflictby:Avoidingself-contradictorymessagesConferringwithotherrolesendersBeingsensitivetomultipleroledemandsFittingtherightpersontotherightroleStatusStatusintherank,socialposition,orprestigeaccordedtogroupmembers.Itrepresentsthegroup’sevaluationofamember.Whatisevaluateddependsonthestatussysteminquestion.Allorganizationshavebothformalandinformalstatussystems.FormalStatusSystemsRepresentsmanagement’sattempttopubliclyidentifythosepeoplewhohavehigherstatusthanothers.Statussymbolsaretangibleindicatorsofstatus(e.g.,titles,paypackages,workschedules).Formalorganizationstatusisbasedonseniorityinone’sgroupandone’sassignedroleintheorganization–one’sjob.FormalStatusSystems(continued)Whydoorganizationsgotoallthetroubletodifferentiatestatus?Theyserveaspowerfulmagnetstoinducememberstoaspiretohigherorganizationalpositions.Reinforcestheauthorityhierarchyinworkgroupsandintheorganizationasawhole.InformalStatusSystemsSuchsystemsarenotwelladvertised,andtheymightlacktheconspicuoussymbolsandsystematicsupportthatpeopleusuallyaccordtheformalsystem.Theycanoperatejustaseffectivelyasformalstatussystems.Informalstatusislinkedtojobperformanceaswellasotherfactorssuchasgenderorrace.ConsequencesofStatusDifferencesMostpeopleliketocommunicatewithothersattheirownstatusorhigher,ratherthanwithpeoplewhoarebelowthem.Tendencyforcommunicationtomoveupthestatushierarchy.Ifstatusdifferencesarelarge,peoplecanbeinhibitedfromcommunicatingupward.Higher-statusmembersdomoretalkingandhavemoreinfluence.ReducingStatusBarriersBecausetheyinhibitthefreeflowofcommunication,manyorganizationsdownplaystatusdifferentiationbydoingawaywithstatussymbols.Thegoalistofosteracultureofteamworkandcooperationacrosstheranks.Emailseemstohaveleveledstatusbarriers.GroupCohesivenessGroupcohesivenessisacriticalpropertyofgroups.Itreferstothedegreetowhichagroupisespeciallyattractivetoitsmembers.Memberswanttostayinthegroupandtheydescribethegroupinfavourableterms.Cohesivenessisarelative,ratherthanabsolute,propertyofgroups.FactorsInfluencingCohesivenessWhatmakessomegroupsmorecohesivethanothers?ThreatandCompetitionExternalthreattothesurvivalofthegroupincreasescohesiveness.Honestcompetitionwithanothergroupcanalsopromotecohesiveness.Thegroupbecomesmorecohesivebecauseitimprovescommunicationandcoordination.FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)SuccessGroupsbecomemorecohesivewhentheysuccessfullyaccomplishsomeimportantgoal.Cohesivenesswilldecreaseafterfailure.MemberDiversityGroupsthataremorediversecanhaveahardertimebecomingcohesive.Ifthereisagreementabouthowtoaccomplishatask,itssuccesswilloftenoutweighsurfacedissimilarityindeterminingcohesiveness.Competition,Success,andCohesivenessFactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)SizeLargergroupshaveamoredifficulttimebecomingandstayingcohesive.Largegroupshaveamoredifficulttimeagreeingongoalsandmoreproblemscommunicatingandcoordinatingeffortstoachievethosegoals.FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)ToughnessofInitiationGroupsthataretoughtogetintotendtobemoreattractivethanthosethatareeasytojoin.ConsequencesofCohesivenessIsmoreorlessgroupcohesivenessdesirable?Whataretheconsequencesofgroupcohesiveness?ConsequencesofCohesiveness(continued)MoreParticipationinGroupActivitiesThereismoreparticipationincohesivegroupsintermsoflowervoluntaryturnoverandabsenteeism,andgreatercommunication.ConsequencesofCohesiveness(continued)MoreConformityHighlycohesivegroupsareabletoinducegreaterconformitytogroupnorms.Membersofcohesivegroupsareespeciallymotivatedtoengageinactivitiesthatwillkeepthegroupcohesive.Canapplypressuretodeviantstogetthemtocomplywithgroupnorms.ConsequencesofCohesiveness(continued)MoreSuccessCohesivenesscontributestogroupsuccess.Cohesivegroupsaregoodatachievingtheirgoals.Groupcohesivenessisrelatedtoperformance.Thereisareciprocalrelationshipbetweensuccessandcohesiveness.Whyarecohesivegroupseffectiveatgoalaccomplishment?ConsequencesofCohesiveness:SummaryInhighlycohesivegroups,theproductivityofindividualgroupmembersissimilartoothermembers;inlesscohesivegroups,thereismorevariationinproductivity.Highlycohesivegroupstendtobemoreorlessproductivethanlesscohesivegroups,dependingonanumberofvariables.Cohesivenessismorelikelytopayoffwhenthetaskrequiresmoreinterdependence.HypotheticalProductivityCurvesForGroupsVaryinginCohesivenessSocialLoafingThetendencytowithholdphysicalorintellectualeffortwhenperformingagrouptask.Socialloafingisamotivationproblem.ThetendencyforsocialloafingisprobablymorepronouncedinindividualisticNorthAmericathaninmorecollectiveandgroup-orientedcultures.Socialloafinghastwodifferentforms.TheFreeRiderEffectInthefreeridereffect,peoplelowertheirefforttogetafreerideattheexpenseoftheirfellowgroupmembers.TheSuckerEffectInthesuckereffect,peoplelowertheireffortbecauseofthefeelingthatothersarefreeriding.Theyaretryingtorestoreequityinthegroup.Whataresomewaystocounteractsocialloafing?CounteractingSocialLoafingMakeindividualperformancemorevisibleKeepgroupsizesmall.MakesurethattheworkisinterestingIfworkisinvolving,intrinsicmotivationshouldcounteractsocialloafing.IncreasefeelingsofindispensabilityUsetrainingandthestatussystemtoprovidegroupmemberswithuniqueinputs.CounteractingSocialLoafing(continued)IncreaseperformancefeedbackIncreasefeedbackfromtheboss,peers,andcustomers.RewardgroupperformanceMembersaremorelikelytomonitorandmaximizetheirownperformanceandthatoftheircolleagueswhenthegroupreceivesrewardsforeffectiveness.WhatIsaTeam?Theterm“team”isgenerallyusedtodescribe“groups”inorganizationalsettings.TeamshavebecomeamajorbuildingblockoforganizationsandarenowquitecommoninNorthAmerica.Researchhasshownimprovementsinorganizationalperformanceintermsofbothefficiencyandqualityasaresultofteam-basedworkarrangements.CollectiveEfficacyWhenitcomestoteams,collectiveefficacyisimportanttoensurehighperformance.Collectiveefficacyconsistsofsharedbeliefsthatateamcansuccessfullyperformagiventask.DesigningEffectiveWorkTeamsAccordingtoJ.RichardHackman,aworkgroupiseffectivewhen:Itsphysicalorintellectualoutputisacceptabletomanagementandtootherpartsoftheorganizationthatusethisoutput.Groupmembers’needsaresatisfiedratherthanfrustratedbythegroup.Thegroupexperienceenablesmemberstocontinuetoworktogether.DesigningEffectiveWorkTeams(continued)Groupeffectivenessoccurswhen:Higheffortisdirectedtowardthegroup’stask.Whengreatknowledgeandskillaredirectedtowardthetask.Whenthegroupadoptssensiblestrategiesforaccomplishingitsgoals.Onewaytodesigngroupstobemoreeffectiveistomakethemself-managedworkteams.Self-ManagedWorkTeams(SMWTs)Workgroupsthathavetheopportunitytodochallengingworkunderreducedsupervision.Thegroupsregulatemuchoftheirownmembers’behaviour.Criticalsuccessfactorsofself-managedteamsinclude:Thenatureofthetask.Thecompositionofthegroup.Varioussupportmechanisms.TasksforSelf-ManagedTeamsTasksassignedtoself-managedworkteamsshouldbecomplexandchallenging.Theyshouldrequirehighinterdependenceamongteammembersforaccomplishment.Thetasksshouldhavethequalitiesofenrichedjobs.CompositionofSelf-ManagedTeamsStabilityGroupmembershipshouldbefairlystable.SizeSelf-managedteamsshouldbeassmallasfeasible.ExpertiseGroupmembersshouldhaveahighlevelofexpertiseaboutthetaskathandaswellassocialskills.CompositionofSelf-ManagedTeams(continued)DiversityGroupmembersshouldbesimilarenoughtoworkwelltogetheranddiverseenoughtobringavarietyofperspectivesandskillstothetaskathand.Onewayofmaintainingappropriategroupcompositionistoletthegroupchooseitsownmembers.SupportingSelf-ManagedTeamsAnumberofsupportfactorscanassistself-managedteamsinbecomingandstayingeffective.Reportsofproblemswithteamscanusuallybetracedbacktoinadequatesupport.SupportingSelf-ManagedTeams(continued)TrainingMembersofself-managedteamsrequireextensivetraininginareassuchastechnicaltraining,socialskills,languageskills,andbusinesstraining.RewardsRewardsshouldbetiedtoteamaccomplishmentratherthantoindividualaccomplishmentwhilestillprovidingteammemberswithsomeindividualperformancefeedback.SupportingSelf-ManagedTeams(continued)ManagementManagementshouldmediaterelationsbetweenteams,dealwithunionconcerns,andcoachteamstobeindependent.FactorsInfluencingWorkGroupEffectivenessResearchonWorkGroupEffectivenessTaskcharacteristicsarerelatedtomostmeasuresofgroupeffectiveness.Groupcompositionisrelatedtoafewoftheeffectivenessmeasures.Teamsperceivedastoolargefortheirtasksratedaslesseffectivethanteamsperceivedasanappropriatesizeortoosmall.Managerialsupportrelatedtomanymeasuresofeffectivenessandisoneofthebestpredictorsofgroupperformance.ResearchonWorkGroupEffectiveness(continued)Groupprocessesarethebestpredictorsofgroupeffectiveness.Overall,researchhasshownimprovementsinteamproductivity,quality,customersatisfaction,andsafetyfollowingtheimplementationofself-managedworkteams.Cross-FunctionalTeamsWorkgroupsthatbringpeoplewithdifferentfunctionalspecialtiestogethertobetterinvent,design,ordeliveraproductorservice.Membershavetobeexpertsintheirownareabutabletocooperatewithothers.Bestknownfortheirsuccessinproductdevelopment.Cross-FunctionalTeams(continued)Thegeneralgoalsofusingcross-functionalteamsincludesomecombinationofinnovation,speed,andqualitythatcomefromearlycoordinationamongthevariousspecialties.Cross-functionalteamsgetallofthespecialtiesworkingtogetherfromdayone.PrinciplesforEffectivenessResearchhasdiscoveredanumberoffactorsthatcontributetotheeffectivenessofcross-functionalteams.CompositionAllrelevantspecialtiesarenecessaryandmustbeincluded.SuperordinategoalsAttractiveoutcomesthatcanonlybeachievedbycollaboration;theymustoverridefunctionalobjectives.PrinciplesforEffectiveness(continued)PhysicalproximityTeammembershavetobelocatedclosetoeachothertofacilitateinformalcontact.AutonomyCross-functionalteamsneedsomeautonomyfromthelargerorganization.Functionalspecialistsneedsomeauthoritytocommittheirfunctiontoprojectdecisions.PrinciplesforEffectiveness(continued)RulesandproceduresSomebasicdecisionproceduresmustbelaiddowntopreventanarchy.LeadershipCross-functionalteamleadersneedespeciallystrongpeopleskillsinadditiontotaskexpertise.SharedMentalModelsTeammembersneedtosharementalmodels.Sharedmentalmodelsmeanthatteammembersshareidenticalinformationabouthowtheyshouldinteractandwhattheirtaskis.Theycontributegreatlytoeffectiveteamperformance,atleastwhenthesharedknowledgeisanaccuratereflectionofreality.Theyareaparticularchallengetoinstillincross-functionalteams.VirtualTeamsVirtualteamsareworkgroupsthatusetechnologytocommunicateandcollaborateacrosstime,space,andorganizationalboundaries.VirtualTeams(continued)Alongwiththerelianceoncomputerandelectronictechnology,theprimaryfeatureofvirtualteamsisthelackofface-to-facecontactbetweenteammembersduetogeographicdispersion.