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PAGEPAGEPAGE519THESOCIO-ECONOMICSUSTAINABILITYOFTOURISMDEVELOPMENTINTHEOKAVANGODELTA,BOTSWANAJosephE.MbaiwaHarryOppenheimerOkavangoResearchCentre.HarryOppenheimerOkavangoResearchCentre.jmbaiwa@orc.ub.bwAbstractThegrowthoftourismintheOkavangoDeltainthelast10-15yearsraisesobviousquestionsaboutitsroleinpromotingruraldevelopment.Thesequestionsinclude:Towhatextentistourismcontributingtotheimprovementofrurallivelihoodsandsustainabledevelopment?Whatistheroleoflocalcommunitiesintourismdevelopmentandnaturalresourceuseandmanagement?ThispaperarguesthatlocalgroupscanmeaningfullyparticipateinmonitoringandinthesustainableuseoftheOkavangoDeltaiftheyderivedirectsocio-economicbenefitsfromtourism,whichisthemaineconomicactivityinthewetland.Insteadofbeingthemainactorsandbeneficiariesofthegrowingtourismbusiness,thelocalpopulationhasbecomeapoolfortheprovisionofcheaplabourtoatourismindustrylargelyownedandcontrolledbyforeigncompaniesandindividuals.Asaresult,tourismdevelopmentintheOkavangoDeltaislargelyenclavicincharacter.AttemptstopromotelocalcommunityparticipationinthetourismthroughtheCommunity-BasedNaturalResourceManagement(CBNRM)programmearenotyieldinganysignificantresultsasmostprojectsareperformingpoorly.Thisisbecauselocalcommunitieslackthenecessaryentrepreneurshipandmanagerialskills,experienceandtrainingtoruntourismbusinesses.Becauseofitsenclavecharacteristics,tourismintheOkavangoDeltacannotbedescribedasbeingsocio-economicsustainable.Theco-operationandparticipationofallstakeholdersparticularlythelocalcommunitiesisvitalifeffectivemonitoringandsustainablemanagementoftheOkavangoDeltaaretobeachieved.INTRODUCTIONTourismisarguablytheworld’slargestandfastestgrowingindustry,accountingforaboutfivepercentoftheworld’sGrossNationalProductandsixpercentoftheemployment(Glassonetal,1995).Mostgovernmentsencouragetourismforitsabilitytospreadeconomicdevelopmentandreduceinequalitiesinincomedistributionbyprovidingjobs(Pearce,1988;CoccossisandParpairis,1995;WahabandPigrim,1997).Forpoorcountries,regions,townsandcities,tourismisseenasthefasttracktodevelopment(Glassonetal,1995).Tourismisthereforeviewedbygovernmentasacatalystfornationalandregionaldevelopment,bringingemployment,exchangeearnings,balanceofpaymentsadvantages,andimportantinfrastructuraldevelopmentsbenefitinglocalsandvisitorsalike(Glassonetal,1995).InBotswanatourismasaneconomicsectorwasalmostnon-existentatindependencein1966.However,by2002,ithadgrowntobecomethesecondlargesteconomicsectorinthecountry,contributing4.5%totheGrossDomesticProduct(Mbaiwa,2002).TourismisdescribedbyBotswana’sTourismPolicyof1990asthenew“engineofgrowth”ofwhichthemainaimistodiversifythecountry’seconomythroughthepromotionoftourism(GovernmentofBotswana,1990).Botswana’stourismindustryrapidlygrewfromthe1990slargelyreliesontheabundanceofwildliferesourcesandthescenicbeautyinthenorthernpartsofthecountry,especiallytheOkavangoDeltaandtheChoberegions.TheOkavangoDelta,awetlandofinternationalimportanceandaRamsarsiteishometo5,000insects,3,000plants,540birds,164mammals,157reptiles,80fishandcountlessmicro-organisms(Rothert,1997).Itisalsohometoover100,000peoplewholivewithinandaroundit.Over95%ofthemdirectlyordirectlydependonthenaturalresourcesfoundinthewetlandtosustaintheirlivelihoods(Mbaiwa,2002).TourismintheOkavangoDeltainvolvesbothconsumptiveandnon-consumptiveactivities.IthasstimulatedthedevelopmentofavarietyofalliedinfrastructureandfacilitieswithinandaroundtheOkavangoDeltasuchashotels,lodgesandcamps,tarredroads,aninternationalairportand27airstrips.Throughitsbackwardlinkages,wholesaleandretailbusinesseshavebeenestablished,especiallyinMaun,tooffervariousgoodstothetourismindustry.Asanewandfastgrowingindustry,obviousquestionscanberaisedaboutitsroleinruraldevelopment.Theseinclude:a)Towhatextentistourismcontributingtotheimprovementofrurallivelihoods?b)Towhatextentarelocalpeopleparticipatingandbenefitingfromtourismdevelopment?c)Whatisthecontributionoftourismtosustainabledevelopment?d)Whoownsandcontrolstourismfacilitiesandactivities?e)WhatistheroleoflocalpeopleinnaturalresourceuseintheOkavangoDelta?f)WhatistheroleoflocalcommunitiesinthemonitoringandmanagementoftheOkavangoDelta?Answerstothesequestionsshoulddeterminewhethertourismiscontributingtosustainabledevelopmentbypromotingruraleconomicdevelopmentandensuringecologicalsustainability.Thispaperassessesthesocio-economicsustainabilityoftourismdevelopmentintheOkavangoDeltabyfocusingonthequestionsabove.Italsoidentifiesstrategiesthatcanbeemployedtopromotesocio-economicsustainabilityoftourisminremoteareassuchastheOkavangoDelta.Finally,thepaperexaminestherolethattourismcanplayinpromotinglong-termmonitoringandmanagementoftheOkavangoDelta.ThepaperisbasedonresultsofasurveyconductedbytheauthorbetweenJanuaryandApril2001.Thestudyusedbothprimaryandsecondarydatasources.heincreasedglobalenvironmentalconcernofthe1980sledtoresearchonthemeaningofsustainabletourisminthe1990s(Pigram,1995).Becausetourismhascultural,economic,andenvironmentalimpacts,it“containstheseedsofitsowndestruction.Tourismcankilltourism,destroyingtheveryenvironmentalattractionswhichvisitorscometoalocationtoexperience”(Plog,1974).Glassonetal.(1995)statethattourismis,byitsverynature,anagentofchange.Someoftheimpactsofchangemaybecontrolled,regulated,ordirected.Ifproperlymanaged,tourismhasthepotentialofbeingarenewableindustry,whereresourceintegrityismaintainedorevenenhanced.Ifmismanagedorallowedtoexpandwithinshort-termgoalsandobjectives,ithasthecapabilityofdestroyingtheveryresourcesuponwhichitisbuilt.Toensurethattourismdoesnotnegativelyimpactonnaturalresourcesitreliesontoimprovelivelihoods,tourismdevelopmentshouldadheretotheprinciplesofsustainabledevelopment.Inotherwords,itmustbeeconomicallyviable,ecologicallysensitiveandculturallyappropriate(Wall,1997).Angelsonetal.(1994),andMunasingheandMcNeely(1995),theconceptofsustainabledevelopmentishingedonthreebroadapproachesandconcerns:(a)economicefficiency,(b)socialequity,and(c)ecologicalsustainability.(a)Economicefficiency.Economicefficiencyaimsattheoptimaluseofnaturalresources(Serageldin1993;MunasingheandMcNeely1995).Theaimistoproducethemaximumoutputinordertoachieveahighstandardoflivingofthepeoplewithintheconstraintsoftheexistingcapital(Markandya1993;Paehlke1999).Althougheconomicsustainabilityimpliesmeetingtheeconomicneedsofeveryonethroughtheuseofnaturalresources,Ndubano(2000)statesthattheexperienceofKenyahasshownthatitispossibletohaveaboomingtouristindustrywhilethemajorityofthelocalpeopleliveinpoverty.This,therefore,suggestthattourismdevelopmentintheOkavangoDeltashouldmeettheneedsofallstakeholdersparticularlytheruralcommunitiesinanattempttopromoteruraldevelopment.(b)Socialequity.Althoughtheyareoftenoverlooked,socialandculturalaspectsarecrucialforsustainabledevelopment.Socialequityisconcernedwiththeconservationandpromotionofsocio-culturaldiversity(Sachs,1999).Itadvocatesfairnessandequalaccesstoresourcesbyallusergroups.Thisisaimedatensuringequityinthedistributionofcosts,benefits,decision-makingandmanagement,whichintheorywilleradicatepoverty(UNCED,1992).Tourismdevelopmentshouldshowthattourismisasocio-culturaleventforboththehostandthetraveler.Culturaltourismshouldthusbepromotedforthesustainabilityoftheindustry(Murphy,1985).Culturaltourismbroadensthescopeoftheindustry,promotesappreciationoftheindustryamonglocalsandthusensuresagreatercommunityinvolvementandamoreequitableshareoftheprosperitybroughtaboutbytourism(Murphy,1985).Thesethreeconceptsofeconomic,social,andecologicalsustainabilityareinter-related.Impactsononearelikelytoaffectallothers.Forexample,thefailuretomeetsocio-economicneedsofstakeholders,particularlylocalcommunities,intourismdevelopmentislikelytonegativelyaffecttheecologicalsustainabilityofthewetland.PovertyaswillbenotedlaterinthispaperisrelativelyhigherintheOkavango(ACORD2002a,2002b,2002c,2002d)areaamongruralcommunities,failurebythesecommunitiestoderivedirectsocio-economicbenefitsfromtourismmayresultinnegativeenvironmentalimpactsonthewetland.Therefore,thepowerofthesustainabledevelopmentconceptliesinitsdualbenefits—itbothopensupnewopportunitiesandavoidsthetrapoftradingoffenvironmentalgoalsagainsteconomicgrowth(Darkoh,1996).Inthispaper,focusisonsocialequityandeconomicefficiencyoftourismdevelopmentasthetwonecessaryconditionsneededtoachieveaneffectivemonitoringandsustainablemanagementoftheOkavangoDelta.ThepaperarguesthatthesearethenecessaryconditionsneededtoachieveaneffectivemonitoringandsustainablemanagementoftheOkavangoDelta.EconomicaspectsOwnershipoftourismfacilities.Tourismfacilities,suchashotels,lodgesandcamps,arelargelyownedbyforeigninvestorsandcompanies.Table1showsthatabout81.5%ofthelodgesandcampsintheOkavangoDeltahaveforeigninfluence.Ofthese,53.8%are100%foreignownedandabout27.7%arejointlyowned.Only18.5%arefullyownedbycitizens.Table1.OwnershipofTourismFacilitiesinMaunandtheOkavangoDelta,2001OwnershipFrequencyandPercentagesTourismfacilitiesDatafromDepartmentofTourismCitizenOwnedJointlyOwnedNon-CitizenOwned12(18.5%)18(27.7%)35(53.8%)16(15.5%)36(35.0%)51(49.5%)Totals65(100.0%)103(100.0%)Source:Mbaiwa(2002)Inarelatedstudy,Ndubano(2000)foundthatabout95%oftheaccommodationandtransportsectorsinMaunhaveforeigninvolvement,with60%ofthembeing100%foreignowned,35%jointlyownedbetweenlocalsandexpatriates,only1%isfullyownedbycitizens.LicensingdatafromtheDepartmentofTourismconfirmsthesefindings.In2000outof103tourismrelatedbusinessesregisteredinMaunandoperationalinMaunandthedelta,16(15.5%)werecitizenowned,36(35.0%)werejointlyowned(betweenBatswanaandnon-citizens)while51(49.5%)werenon-citizensowned.Thus87(84.5%)ofthetourismrelatedcompaniesregisteredinMaunandoperationalintheOkavangoregionhavesomeforeignownership.ForeigninvestorsandcompaniesalsodominateconcessionareasleasedbytheTawanaLandBoardintheOkavangoDelta(theTawanaLandBoardisthegovernmentinstitutionchargedwithlandallocationandmanagementfortheOkavangoregion).AsshowninTable2,outof15concessionareasleasedbytheTawanaLandBoard,4(26.7%)areleasedtocitizencompanies,6(40.0%)tojointventurecompanies,and5(33.3%)tonon-citizencompanies.Non-citizencompaniesarethusdirectlyinvolvedin11(73.3%)ofthe15concessionareasunderthecontrolofTawanalandBoard. Table2:ConcessionAreasLeasedbyTawanaLandBoardinNgamiland,2001OwnershipNoofCHAsPercentageCitizenJointlyNon-Citizens46526.740.033.3Total15100.0Source:Mbaiwa(2002)Basedontheevidenceabove,itisobviousthatthetouristindustryintheOkavangoDeltaisnowdominatedbyforeigncompanieswhoownmostofthetourismfacilitiesandhaveconcessionalrightstowildlifeareas.Glassonetal.(1995)notethatthedominanceofthetourismindustrybyforeigninvestorsandthenon-localinvestmentcanreducecontroloverlocalresourcesandthatthislossoflocalautonomyisthemostnegativelong-termeffectoftourism.Alocalresidentmayalsosufferalossofsenseofplace,ashis/hersurroundingsaretransformedtoaccommodatetherequirementsofaforeign-dominatedtourismindustry.InformalinterviewswithcommunityleadersandhouseholdrepresentativesintheOkavangoindicatethatthereisageneralassumptionthatthedeltahasbeentakenfromthembygovernmentandgiventoforeigntouroperators.Asaresult,citizensviewtheapproachnegativelybecausetheyperceivethedominationbynon-citizensas“sellingout”theirresources(Mbaiwa,1999).SincethetourismindustryintheOkavangoisnowdominatedbyforeigncompanies,equalaccesstoanddecisionsabouttheuseofresourcesnowlargelyexcludeslocalpeople.Thissituationisnotsustainabledevelopmentwhichemphasesequalaccessandparticipationindecision-makingaboutuseofnaturalresourcesbyallusergroupsandstakeholders.Asustainabletourismindustryshouldbesensitivetotheneedsandaspirationsofthehostpopulationandprovidethemtheopportunitytoparticipateinthedecision-makingprocess(Glassonetal.,1995;Ceballos-Lascurain,1996).ThisappearsnottobethecaseatthemomentintheOkavangoDelta.Tourismthatdevelopsinremoteareasandislargelyownedandcontrolledbyoutsidersis“enclavetourism”(Britton,1982andCeballos-Lascurain,1996).Enclavetourismisakindof“internalcolonialism”.Naturalresourcesinahostregionmostlybenefitoutsiderswhilethemajorityofthelocalsderivelittleornobenefits(Drakakis-SmithandWilliams,1983;DixonandHefferman,1991).Thetypesoffacilitiesandtheirphysicallocationfailtotakeintoconsiderationtheneedsandwishesofsurroundingcommunities(Ceballos-Lascurain,1996).Moreover,thegoodsandservicesavailableatthesefacilitiesarebeyondthefinancialmeansofthelocalcommunitiesandanyforeigncurrencygeneratedmayhaveonlyaminimaleffectupontheeconomyofthehostlocation.TheOkavangoDeltais,therefore,aclassiccaseofenclavetourism.ThedevelopmentofenclavetourismintheOkavangoDeltaderivesfromthepursuanceofBotswana’sTourismPolicyof1990thatemphasizesthepromotionofhighcost-lowvolumetourism.Thisstrategywasadoptedtoraisetheneededrevenuefortheindustrytosustainitselfandtoavoidpitfallsofmasstourism.Since1990,therehasbeenashiftfromencouragingcasualtouristscampersinfavouroftouristwhooccupypermanentaccommodations.Theypolicyalsopresumedthatlowvolumesoftouristsaremoreconsistentwiththeneedtoprotecttheenvironmentalbasisoftheindustry.TheTourismPolicyhasbeenimplementedthroughtargetedmarketingandtheimpositionofhighfeesfortheuseofpublicfacilities.WealthytouristshaveasaresultbeenencouragedtovisittheOkavangoDeltaandhighfeesareindirectlydiscouraginglowbudgettourists.ThesechargespartlymaketheOkavangoDeltaaprohibitivelyexpensiveresortareaforlocalstovisit,andinfact,only8.1%ofthevisitorstoMoremiGameReservelocatedwithintheOkavangoin1999werecitizens(Mbaiwa,2002).Thatcitizensandlocalcommunitiesasyetderiveminimalsocio-economicbenefits(e.g.lowownershipoftourismfacilities,andlowerpositionsandsalaries)fromtourismislikelytoaffectattemptsandeffortsmeanttopromoteeffectivesustainablemanagementoftheOkavangoDelta.StudiesinZimbabwebyMurphree(1993)andMwenyaetal.(1991),inSouthAfricabyProsser(1996)andinNamibiabyAshley(1995)andRihoy(1995)haveshownthatlocalpeopletendtosupportthewiseuseofnaturalresourcessuchaswildlifeintheirlocalenvironmentiftheyderivesocio-economicbenefitsfromthem.Rihoy(1995:15)states“…foracommunitytomanageitsresourcebasesustainablyitmustreceivedirectbenefitsarisingfromitsuse.Thesebenefitsmustexceedtheperceivedcostsofmanagingtheresourceandmustbesecureovertime.”Asaresult,socio-economicbenefitsfromtourismmayfosterindividualsandcommunitieslivinginnaturalresourceareastomaintainasustainableecologicalbase(Mbaiwa1999,2002).Thefactthattourismisdominatedbyexpatriates,whoalsohappentoderivebetterbenefitsthanlocalpeoplecreatesresentment,antagonisms,andresourceconflictsbetweenthelocalpeopleandforeigninvestors.ManylocalpeopleassumetheDelta,whichhassustainedtheirlivelihoodsforcenturies,hasbeenusurpedfromthemandhasbeentransferred,atleasttemporarilytoforeigntourismoperators(Mbaiwa1999;2002).Thisstateofaffairscreatesahostileenvironmentinwhichitisunlikelythatthemostimportantstakeholders,localpeoplethemselves,cancollaboratewiththetourismindustrytopromotethesustainableuseoftheworld-classwetlandecosystem.RepatriationoftourismrevenueThetourismindustryinBotswanaiscritised(e.g.byBTDP1999;BOB1999;DOT2000)foritsfailuretoretainrevenueinthecountry.Over70%ofthetourismrevenueinBotswanaisrepatriatedoutsidethecountry(BotswanaTourismDevelopmentProgramme,BTDP1999;BankofBotswana,BoB1999;DOT2000;Mbaiwa2002).TouristsspentanestimatedP1.1billionin1997.Ofthisgrossexpenditure,55%(P605million)wasspentoutsideBotswanaandafurther16%(P175)millionwaslostthroughfirst-roundlinkagesofreceiptsduetotourist-relatedimports.Britton(1982)notesthatwheretourpackagesareofferedbyforeignairlines,andforeignersrunhotels,thedestinationcountriesreceiveonaverage22-25%oftheinclusivetourretailpricespaidbythetourists.Only29%(P320million)wasspentinBotswanaonlocalgoods,wages,taxesandotheractivities(BTDP,1999;DOT,2000;Mbaiwa,2002).Botswana’spresenttourismindustry,dominatedbyforeignownershipthustransfersmuchrevenuebeyondBotswana’seconomywhichischaracteristicofenclavetourismthroughouttheworld(Drakakis-SmithandWilliams,1983;DixonandHefferman,1991;Ceballos-Lascurain,1996;Cater,1991).TherepatriationofrevenuefromBotswanabytourismcompaniesisalsoshownbythefailureofthesecompaniestopaytaxasmuchofthebookingsandpaymentsfortouriststhatvisittheOkavangoaredoneoutsideBotswanawhereheadofficesforthesecompaniesarelocated(e.g.SouthAfrica,NorthAmerica,EuropeandAustralia).Inaddition,theBotswanaGovernmenthasalsobeenunabletoimplementrecommendationsbypreviousstudies(e.g.BTDP2000)thatnotedthattourismcompaniesshouldmaintainfinancialbooksandhavethemauditedlocallytomaketaxpaymentseasier.TheBTDP(2000:2)notes“theoneareawheretourismdoesnotappeartobemakingasubstantialcontributiontogovernmentrevenueistaxation.”FindingsbyBTDPshowthat,ofthe70tourismcompanieslistedinthe1999editionoftheHotelandTourismAssociationofBotswana(HATAB)TradeDirectory,taxreturnscouldonlybefoundfor23.In15ofthe23taxreturns,financialstatementswereunauditedandwerepreparedfromrecords,vouchersandinformationsuppliedtotheaccountantsbythedirectors.Asaresult,only8ofthe70companiespaidcorrectcompanytaxesonthebasisoftheirmostrecentfinancialaccounts(thatis,only11%ofthetourismcompaniesinBotswanapaytax).Toaddressthisproblem,BTDP(2000)recommendedthatforeigncompaniesshouldmaintaincompanybooksinBotswana,andreportanychangeaffectingthenameofthecompany(eitherasresultofcessationoftrading,liquidationoramalgamationwithanothercompany)totheGovernmentofBotswana.TheaboveresultsshowthatwhilethetourismindustryismakingavaluablecontributiontoBotswana’seconomythroughcapitalinvestment,foreignexchangeearnings,employment,paymentoflicencesandotherfees,paymentstosupplierindustries,andpaymenttotheinformalsector,itisfailingthroughtaxation(partlybecausegovernmentfailtoimplementtaxpoliciesandthattourismcompaniesmaintainfinancialbooksoutsidethecountrywhichmakeitdifficultforthemtobetaxedlocally).Dixonetal(2000)writeoffailurebytourismcompaniestopaytaxintheCaribbeanmainlybecausecompaniesalsopre-dominantlyforeignowned.Dixonetal(2000:22)state,“…investmentincentivestoforeignfirmsrepresentaneffectivetransferoftaxrevenuefromthedomesticeconomytotheforeignhomeofthefirmsinquestion….”TherepatriationoftourismrevenuefromBotswanaandtheOkavangoDeltainparticular,andthefailuretopaytaxesmaketourismabusinessthatfailstopromotere-investmentinthecountryespeciallyinruralareasoftheOkavango.ThishasintheprocessresultedinpoorruraldevelopmentandpovertyincommunitieslivingwithintheOkavangoDelta(ACORD2002a;2002b;20002c;2002dandMbaiwa2003).IftourismfailstoeffectivelypromoteruraleconomicdevelopmentintheOkavangoandcontributetopovertyalleviation,itwillbedifficultforthepoorruralcommunitiestoco-operateinanyeffortsmeanttopromoteenvironmentalmonitoringandthesustainableuseofthewetland.CreationofEmploymentEmploymentinthetourismindustryintheOkavangoDeltaisinfluencedbythedegreeoflinkagestheindustryhaswithothersectorsoftheeconomy,notablyagriculture,manufacturing,thecraftindustry,thewholesaleandretailindustry,thetransportsectorespeciallytheairlineservices,communicationandthewildlifesector.Whileasignificantnumberofpeopleareemployedinthesetourismandassociatedsectors,theindustryhasnoteffectivelymanagedtopromoteothereconomicsectorssuchasagriculture,craft,andmanufacturing(Mbaiwa,2002).Despitethislimitation,asampleof30safarilodgesandcamps(outofatotalof63lodgesandcamps)intheOkavangoDeltaindicatesthatin2001,923peoplewereemployedbythesefacilitiesandthat727otherpeoplehadjobsin35tourism-relatedbusinessesinMaun.AsurveyconductedbyScottWilsonConsultantsatthesametimeasthisstudybutondifferentcampsandlodgesfoundthat735peoplewereemployedinatotalof20safaricampsintheDelta(ScottWilsonConsultants,2001).Inthesetwosurveys,therefore,atotalof50safaricampsandlodgesintheOkavangoDeltaemployabout1658people,whichis16.6%oftheformalemploymentinthetourismsectorofBotswana.EmploymentinthetourismsectorinBotswanashowsthatin1998,atotalofroughly10,000jobsintheformalsectorweregeneratedbythewildlifeandtourismsectors(HotelandTourismAssociationofBotswana,HATAB2000;BankofBotswanaBOB1999;CSO1998).Thisrepresentsabout4.5%ofthetotalformalemploymentinBotswana.Healy(1994)notesthatlocalparticipationintourismindevelopingcountriesisprimarilyinemploymentratherthanthetourismbusinesswherethehighcapitalcostsofentry,language,education,andskillsareconstraints.Employmentoflocalstendstobelowskilled,poorlypaid,andoftenseasonalincharacter.IntheOkavangoDeltatourismsector,localpeopleinjobssuchasmanuallabourers,drivers,maids,cleaners,nightwatchmen,gatekeepers,andcooksaremainlyunskilledandthereforepaylowsalaries.Whencomparedtoexpatriatecounterpartswhooccupymanagementpositions,thereisabigsalarydifferential.About62%ofthejuniorworkersinthetourismindustrytheOkavangoDeltaarepaidsalariesrangingfromP300–P900permonthwhereasseniorworkersarepaidsalariesthatrangefromP1,200–P2,400forlocalstaffandP4,500–P8,000forexpatriatestaff.ManagingDirectorsarepaidbetweenP15,000–P18,000(Mbaiwa,2002).Ndubano’sstudy(2000)confirmsthesefindings:hersampleof50citizensemployedinthetourismsectorinMaun,33(66%)earnedbetweenP300andP990.Ndubanonotedthatalmosttwo-thirdsofthecitizensemployedintourism-relatedjobsinMaunearnlessthanP954.78,thecountry’spovertydatumlevelin2000.TheBotswanaTourismDevelopmentProgramme(BTDP)consultants,whosemainfocuswassalariesinthetourismindustryatthenationallevelnotethateventhoughthepercentageofforeignersinthetourismemploymentissmall(about4%inthehotelandlodgesectors),theydominatethebetterpayingjobs(BTDP,1999).AccordingtoBTDP,mediansalariesrangefromaroundP500permonthforthelowestpaidcategoriestoaroundP5,000permonthforthehighestpaid.TheBTDPconsultantsfurtherreportthatthegapbetweencitizenandexpatriatelevelsofremunerationbecomesstillwiderwhenbenefitsandallowancesaretakenintoconsideration.Mostexpatriateemployeesqualifyforgeneroustaxfreegratuities,homeleavepassages,children’seducationallowances,furnishedhousingallowances,andencashmentofleaveallowances.Ontheotherhand,salariespaidinthetourismsectorintheOkavangoDeltaappeartobeconsistentwiththoseofotherdevelopingcountries,notablytheCaribbean.Pantin(1998)statesthatinStLucianineoutoftenmanagersinthehotelandrestaurantsectorswereexpatriatesandtheiraveragesalarieswereseveraltimeshigherthantheearningsofunskilledlocallabourers.OneimplicationofthesalarydifferentialbetweenlocalsandexpatriateswithinthetourismsectorintheOkavangoDeltaarethatresentmentandhostilityarelikelytodevelop.ContributiontoRuralDevelopmentTheBotswanaWildlifeConservationPolicyof1986,andTourismPolicyof1990arethemaingovernmentdocumentsthatpromotetheparticipationofruralcommunitiesintourismdevelopment.Theassumptionbythesepoliciesandstrategyisthattourismhasthepotentialtopromoteruraldevelopmentandthesustainabilityoftourismresourcesespeciallywildlife.Despitethesegovernmentpolicydocuments,ruraldevelopmentespeciallythroughtourismintheOkavangoisrelativelyunsuccessful(Mbaiwa,2003).However,theCommunity-BasedNaturalResourceManagement(CBNRM)programmeismeanttohelptourismcontributetoruraldevelopmentandtopromoteimprovementinrurallivelihoods.TheCBNRMprogrammestartedinthemid-1990s.Tof