讲义参考讲稿brand

Knowledgepointinthepastpaper:Def.ofbrand“Abrandisaname,term,sign,symbol,design,orsomecombinationthatidentifiestheofafirmwhiledifferentiatingthemfromthecompetition’s.”KellerBrandisacomplexsymbol.Itistheintangiblesumofaproduct’sattributes,itsname,packagingandprice,itshistory,reputation,andthewayit’sadvertised.Abrandisalsodefinedbyconsumer’simpressionofpeoplewhouseit,aswellastheirownexperience.”OgilvyD.Whystrongbrandsareimportant?Strongbrands,typicallyproductcategoryleaders,areimportanttobothcompaniesandconsumers.Forexample,Apple,,IBM, andGeneralElectricareworldleadingbrandsandcustomersarepreparedtopayfortheassurancestheyoffer.ThefinancialvalueofcompaniescanbegeneratedbypossessionofstrongForexample:NestleacquiringRowntreefor2.5billionforitsbrandsincludingKitKat,Polo,andAfterEightP&GacquiringGillette'sfor31billion.ConsumerperceptionsandpreferencesareaffectedbybrandEg:twomatchedsamplesofconsumerswereaskedtotasteDietCokeandDietPepsi.ThistestclearlyshowsthepowerofstrongbrandofDietCokenamesininfluencingperceptionsandpreferencestowardsDietCoke.BarriertoTheimpactofthestrong,positiveperceptionsheldbyconsumersabouttopbrandsmeansitisdifficultfornewbrandstocompete.Highmarketshare,brandloyaltyandForexample,brandssuchasHeinz,Kellogg’S,Coca-Cola,Appleandareallassociatedwithpremiumprices.Thisisbecausetheirsuperiorbrandequitymeansthatconsumersreceiveaddedvalueovertheirlesspowerfulrivals.Strongbrandsalsoachievedistributionmorereadily,economiesofscale,andareinbetterpositiontoresistdemandsforpricediscounts.BaseforbrandAstrongbrandprovidesthefoundationforleveragingpositiveperceptionsandgoodwillfromthecorebrandtobrandextentions.ThenewbrandbenefitsfromtheaddedvaluethatbrandequityofcorebrandbestowsintheextensionEg:DietCoke,PepsiQualitycertification(benefitstoAccordingtotheHenleyForecastingCentrefoundthatcustomerstendtotruststrongbrands,especiallyintougheconomiccircumstances.ThesuccessfulbrandextensionBrandextension:Brandextensionreferstotheuseofasuccessfulbrandnametolaunchanewormodifiedproductinasamebroadmarket.Reducecostsofintroductory&follow-upmarketingprograms(save40-AdaptitsoffertothemarkettoinsurebrandReduceriskperceivedbyImprovebrandimage,providefeedbackImprovetheoddsofnew-productsuccess.NewproductasaAllowconsumersvariety-seeking-IncreasetheprobabilityofgainingdistributionandtrialCarrefourasthesecondbiggestretailgroupintheworld,promotetheirownbrandproductin in2004.自有品牌产品的特点是在拥有与Wiprowhichwasoriginallyintocomputershasextendedintoshampoo,powder,andsoap.Marsisnolongerafamousbaronly,butanice-cream,chocolatedrinkandaslabofchocolate.DisadvantageCanfailandhurtparentbrandCanhaveabadinfluenceinnewCandilutebrandLessfocusedandExtramanagementEg:HaierproductextensioninPCduetolackofinnovation,insufficientdesignideasandtheviolentmarket.P&DinvestedonebillioninpromotingshowerproductZestbuteventuallyfailedandstoppedproduction.HowtocreateabrandnameShortandcleartoavoidinterferenceinthetransmissionprocessAvoidEasytobeHaveagoodimpliedGoodandrichassociationrelatedtothespecificindustrysituation,usingtheassociationtolcustomerwhatyouwanttheytoknowaboutyouWithfunandRelatedtothehavestrong,positive,uniquebrandwhichdistinguishthebrandfromitsManageluxurybrandin (brandmanagement&luxurybrandingbrandTheCharacteristicsofLuxuryBrands:PremiumQuality–exquisi ycraftedordesignedHighPrice–notaffordableforordinarypeopleRarity–limitedproduction;uniquenessRichCulture–relatedtoartsandaesthetics;fashionintensivePassion–extremelyeagertoobtainUnnecessarityInternational–associatedwithcountryoforigin;globalHowtobuildastrongbrand•CreatestrustandanemotionalattaentOftencommandsapremium•Brandinghelpsmakepurchasingdecisions•Brandinghelps"fenceoff"customersfrom sconsumers’•Allowsbrand•LessvulnerableagainstbrandBrandimage:isdefinedasconsumers'perceptionsasreflectedbythesetofassociationstheyholdintheirmindswhentheythinkofyourbrand.（strong,positiveandunique)当人们看到一个品牌想到的越多越好BrandequityTheextravaluethebrandtotheproducttheextramoneyyouwillpaytobuytheproductEg:20，加了prada的logo就贵BrandmanagementHowtobuildastrongBrandDef.ofbrandthedegreeofpassionateemotionalatta entasatisfiedconsumerhasforaparticulartradeit’sAloyalpreferenceofabrand.PositivelyrelatedtobrandloyaltyandwordofTwoantecedentofbrandBrandDef:theextenttowhichtheconsumerseeshisorherownself-imageasoverlap thebrand’sPositiverelationshipb\wbrandidentificationandbrandrelationshipSenseofDef.:theperceptionofsimilaritytoothers,anacknowledgedinterdependencewithothers,awillingnesstomaintainthisinterdependencebygivingtoor ngforotherswhatoneexpectsfromthem,andthefeelingthatoneispartofalargerdependableandstablestructureAdirecteffectonbrandloveissocialidentitywhichinfluencebrandeofbrandlove:activeengagementandwordofSurvey:By ngasurveyofipod,Vegemite,PanadolandColgatetotalbyCarrollandAhuvia,itindicatethatbrandidentificationandsenseofcommunityaretwoantecedentsofbrandlove,bothdirectlyrelatedtobrandlove.Besides,brandloyaltyandactiveengagementare esofbrandlove.Suggestion:managershouldcultivateasenseofcommunityamongbuyersanduserstotheirbrandwhichwillleadtoanincreaseinbrandloveandbrandloyalty.HowtoEncourageformalbrandcommunities,eg:supportingofficialuserBuildasenseofcommunity,eg:thoughadvertisingoreventsponsorshipsthatshowsthesimilarityb\wusersofthebrandandthebrandBrandfestswhichisorganizedconsumptionexperiencesisaneffectivewayofbuildingupasenseofcommunityInvestinmarketingactivitiesoftargetconsumersthatincreasebrandStrategyrelatedtobrandlove:marketingshieldingwhichisasupplementtotheimageextensionstrategy.Tomaintainorfortifybrandlove:1.Buildidentificationandincreasesenseofcommunitywithinthesegment.Wayof ngtheseisincreasedesireNaming inregardgood asapleatohaven,toensuresmoothoperationinfuture.culture:Respecttoauthority:rootfromConfucius‘sfivecardinalrelations:sovereignandminister,fatherandson,husbandandwife,oldandyoungandb\wfriends.areexpectedtoobserveandactundernormsforeachinter alrelation.Man-natureFactorsareaffectingthebehaviourofanentrepreneuringivinganametohis :gender,age,andattitudestowardsrateandauthority,( culturevalue)nothiseducationallevelandreligion.Over50precent whichseekagoodandmeaningfulAgehasasignificantinfluenceingivinganameof.Theoldertheentrepreneuris,themorelikelyhiswillgetabettername.ithasnothingtodowitheducationalFemaleisnotasconfidentasmaninculture,sofemaleinhaveagreatertendencyinchoosingagoodnameheavenisthepathofduty.ReligiondoesnothaveasignificantinfluenceinnamingYuanisanimportantelementoftheculturevalueofman-to-natureorientation.Entrepreneurswhobelieveinfatewillhaveagreatertendencytogiveagoodandmeaningfulname.Geomancer’sadvicehasasignificanteffectontheactofPositiveattitudetowardsfeng-shui\fateandfortunelinghaveasignificantinfluenceonResearchresultandsuggestions:Nameoface,nameofaandnametranslatedfromotherlanguagesarenotbearinggoodnameBothageand haveanimpactonbehaviourinnaming.Oldandfemaleentrepreneurshaveahighertendencytoseekaprosperousname.believethatgoodandmeaningfulnamewilltendtohavepositiveconsequencesofAttitudetowardsfortunelingalsoaffectnaminga.Buteducationlevelandregiondonot.Agoodnamewillservetoenhance ’sNamemaybecanhelpmarketerstargetinghighclassconsumersforahigherSelf-construal,referencegroup,andbrandBrandcanberelatedtoconsumerbehaviourwhichisthatconsumersbuyproductsto alidentity.Soifmarketerscanbuildbrandaccordingtomeetthebrandidentificationwithconsumerswillhelpalot. urEYzY02PveezzTtmjKreferencegroupandconsumptionBrandsymbolismareeasilyacceptedbyallgroupConsumerbuyproductsofwhichbrandmatchingtheirself-canusetheconsumerself-constructtobuildupthebrandimageReferencegroupisagrouptowhichanindividualoranothergroupiscomparedwhenconsumersmakingtheirconsumptiondecision.顾客消费的时候参照的人群Consumerwilleasilyacceptthebrandfromingroupwhichmeansfromone’sowngroupandrejectbrandsfromoutgroup.Brandcouldusetogiveourfocusontheself-constructionprocessesusingbrands,ratherthaninformationprocessinginresponsetoanadvertisement.(ingroup就是客户自己的一个群体有共同地属性，sharesomesimilarities,就会比较Weproposethattheinfluenceofingroupandoutgroupbrandusagewilldifferdependinguponwhethertheconsumerhasaprimarilyindependentorinterdependentself-construal.（ingroup,想要distinctfromotherswillchooseoutgroup)Somebrandsarebetterablethanotherstocommunicatesomethingabouttheusingthem.eg:publicconsumedandluxuryarebetterinconveyingsymbolicmeaningaboutanindividualBrandsymbolism有品牌象征意义的会更容易被所有Consumersreporthigherself-brandconnectionsforbrandswithimagesthatareconsistentwiththeimageofaningroupcomparedtobrandswithimagesthatareinconsistentwiththeimageofaningroup.Brandsthatcommunicatesomethingabouttheuseryieldstrongereffectsthanbrandsthatdonot.WhatbrandcanhelpconsumerBrandcanusetomeetself-expressionneeds,publicorpriva y产品可以帮助顾客实现自Meaningstoproductcouldviathefashionsystem,wordofmouth,referencegroups,subculturalgroups,celebrities,andthemedia.Canserveastoolsforsocialintegrationor plishment,provideself-esteem,allowonetodifferentiateoneselfandexpressindividuality.WHATISAPRODUCT?(KOTLER,ET.AL,Definition:anythingthatcanbeofferedtoamarketforattention,acquisition,useorconsumptionthatmightsatisfyawantorneed.Itincludesphysicalobjects,services, s,ces,organisationsandLevelsofCoreproduct:theproblem-solvingservicesorcorebenefitsthatconsumersarereallybuyingwhentheyobtainaproduct.Whendesigningproducts,marketersmustfirstdefinethecoreofbenefitsthattheproductwillprovidetoconsumers.Actualproduct:aproduct’sparts,qualitylevel,features,design,brandname,packagingandotherattributesthatcombinetodelivercoreproductbenefits.E.g.,Sony’scamcamcorderisanactualproduct.Itsname,parts,styling,features,packagingandotherattributeshaveallbeencombinedtodeliverthecorebenefit-aconvenient,high-qualitywaytocaptureimportantmoments.Augmentedproduct:additionalconsumerservicesandbenefitsbuiltaroundthecoreandactualProductismorethanasimplesetoftangiblefeaturesbutincludecomplexbundlesofbenefitsthatsatisfycustomers’needs.PRODUCTIONDECISION(KOTLER,ET.AL,Marketersmakeproductdecisionsatthreelevels:individualproductlevel;productlinedecisionsandproductmixdecisions.IndividualProductProductProductDefinition:productqualitystandsfortheabilityofaproducttoperformitsfunctions.Itincludestheproduct’soveralldurability,reliability,precision,easeofoperationandrepair,andothervaluedattributes.Qualityhasadirectimpactonproductperformance;itiscloselylinkedtocustomer’svalueandsatisfaction.Case:TotalQualityProductFeaturesareacompetitivetoolfordifferentiatingthe ’sproductfromcompetitors’Beingthefirstproducertointroduceaneededandvaluednewfeatureisoneofthemosteffectivewaystocompete.UsemarketingresearchtofindthemostvaluedDefinition:abrandisaname,term,design,symbol,sign,oracombinationofthese,intendedtoidentifythegoodsorservicesofonesellerorgroupofsellersandtodifferentiatethemfromthoseofcompetitors.BrandcanaddvaluetotheBrandcanprovideaguaranteeofreliabilityandquality.(Seemoreabouttheimportanceofbrandingdetailedbelow)PackaginginvolvesdesigningandproducingthecontainerorwrapperforaManyfactorshavemadepackaginganimportantmarketing,fromattractingattention,todescribingtheproduct,tomakingthesale.Inanaveragesupermarket,whichstocks15,000to17,000items,thetypicalshpperpassesbysome300itemsperminute.Needpackagingtoattracttheconsumers’ProductsafetyandenvironmentalconcernsarearisingTetraPakinventedan‘aseptic’packagethatenablesmilk,fruitjuiceandotherliquidfoodstobedistributedwithoutrefrigeration.ItprovideseconomicanddistributionForexample,Asepticpackagingallowsdairiestodistributemilkoverawiderareawithoutinvestinginrefrigeratedtrucksandfacilities.SupermarketscancarryTetraPakpackagedproductsonordinaryshelves,allowingthemtosaveexpensiverefrigeratorspace.Thelabelmightgradetheproduct,ordescribeseveralthingsabouttheproduct-whomadeit,whereitwasmade,whenitwasmade,itscontents,howitistobesuedandhowtouseitsafely.Finally,thelabelmightpromotetheproductthroughattractivegraphics.Legalconcernsaboutpackagingandlabelscanmisleadcustomers,failtodescribeimportantingredientorfailtoincludeneedsafetywarning.EUhascomprehensiveEClegislation,whichsetmandatorylabellingrequirementsandadherencetopackagingstandard.Product-lineAproductlineisagroupofproductsthatarecloselyrelatedbecausetheyfunctioninasimilarmanner,aresoldtothesamecustomergroups,aremarketedthroughthesametypesofoutlet,orfallwithingivenpriceranges.Themajorproductlinedecisioninvolvesproductlinegrowth—thenumberofitemsintheproductline:downwardstretch(e.g.CompaqandIBMhadtoaddlessexpensive alcomputerlinestofendoffcompetitionfromlow-priced‘clones’andtotakeadvantageoffastermarketgrowthinthelowerendofthecomputermarket);upwardstretch(e.g.Toyotaintroducedanup-marketline-Lexus-andusedanentirelynenameratheritsownname);two-waystretch(e.g.Sonywalkman).Product-MixProduct-mixdecisionisthesetofallproductlinesanditemsthataparticularselleroffersforsaletoBRANDING(JOBBER,WhyStrongBrandsare 1)ThefinancialvalueofcompaniescanbegreatlyenhancedbythepossessionofstrongForexample:Gillette’sbalancesheetmentionedonlyphysical,tangibleassetsof£4billion,whileitstotalbrandswereworth£10billion.AnotherexampleisCoca-Cola,whichattributesonly7%ofitsvaluetoitsntsandConsumerPerceptionsandStrongbrandnamescanhavepositiveeffectsonconsumerperceptionsandSeethedetailedexampleonpage329(DietCokeVsDietBarriertoTheimpactofthestrong,positiveperceptionsheldbyconsumersabouttopbrandsmeansitisdifficultfornewbrandstocompete.Ther’sbrandnameandtrademarkprovidelegalprotectionforuniqueproductionfeaturesthatotherwisemightbecopiedbycompetitors.Forexample:VirginCokefailedtodentCoca-Cola’sdominationofthecolaHighMarket-leadingbrandsarerarelytheThisisbecausetheirsuperiorbrandequitymeansthatconsumersreceiveaddedvalueovertheirlesspowerfulrivals.Strongbrandsalsoachievedistributionmorereadily,economiesofscale,andareinabetterpositivetoresistretailerdemandsforpricediscounts.BaseforBrandAstrongbrandprovidesthefoundationforleveragingpositiveperceptionsandgoodwillfromthecorebrandtobrandextensions.Examples:CocaCola→DietCoke,Pepsi→PepsiMax,MarketBrandinghelpsthertosegmentmarkets.Forexample,CadburyoffersDairyMilk,Posesandotherbrands,notjustonegeneralconfectioneryproductforallcustomers.ForQualitycertification:Brandnames lthebuyersomethingaboutproductquality.Buyerswhoalwaysbuythesamebrandknowthattheywillgetthesamequalityeachtimetheybuy.Consumershopefficiency:Brandnamesalsoincreasetheshopper’sefficiency.Imagineabuyergoingintoasupermarketandfindingthousandsofgenericproducts.Brandnameshelpcallconsumers’attentiontonewproductsthatmightbenefitthem.Thebrandname esthebasisuponwhichawholestorycanbebuiltaboutthenewproduct’sspecialqualities.Reducespurchaserisk:consumerstendtotruststrongbrands.Becausestrongbrandsindicatehighquality,itcanreducethetimethatconsumerchoosefromvarietiesunknownbrandsandreducetheirpurchaserisk.Inaddition,brandingaddsvaluetoconsumersandThosewhofavourbrandingsuggestthatitleadstohigherandmoreconsistentproductBrandingalsoincreasesinnovationbygivingproducersanincentivetolookfornewfeaturesthatcanbeprotectedagainstimitatingcompetitors.Thus,brandingresultsinmoreproductvarietyandchoiceforconsumers.Brandinghelpsshoppersbecauseitprovidesmuchmoreinformationaboutproductsandwheretofindthem.Howtomeasurethelevelofbrandvalue:BrandDefinition:brandequityisameasureofthestrengthofabrandinthemarketcebyaddingtangiblevaluetoa throughtheresultingsalesandprofits.Twotypesofbrandequity:consumer-basedbrandequityandproprietary-basedbrandConsumer-BasedBrandDefinition:definedasthedifferentialeffectthatbrandknowledgehasonconsumerresponsetothemarketingofthatbrand.Positivecustomer-basedbrandequityislikelytoresultinhighcustomerloyalty,lowpricesensitivity,ahighwillingnessforcustomerstovisitmorethanoneoutletinordertopurchasethebrandandastrongbaseforbrandextensions.Twosourcesofconsumer-basedbrandequity:brandawarenessandbrandBrandByraisingbrandawareness,thelikelihoodthatthebrandwillenteraconsumer’sevokedset(thosebrandsthataconsumerseriouslyconsidersbeforemakingapurchase)isincreasedsinceawarenessisapre-conditionofevaluationofabrand.Inlow-involvementsituations,apurchasemayfollowawarenessofabrandwithlittleinformationprocessingsincethepurchaseisoflowimportanceorlowprice.BrandBrandequitycanalsobeincreasedbycreatingastrongbrandAbrandimageiscreatedthroughtheuseofallelementsofthemarketingmix:product,promotion,ce,andprice.Proprietary-BasedBrandProprietary-basedbrandequityisderived attributesthatdelivervaluetotheTwosources:patentsandchannelBrandvaluation:acommonmethodistocalculatethevalueofbrandbytakingintoaccountfutureprofitsanddiscountingthemtothepresentday.Patentsgivesgreatercertaintytofuturerevenuesstreamsbyprotectingabrandfromcompetitivethreatoverthelifetimeofthepatent.ChannelExperience,knowledge,andcloserelationshipswithdistributorsandrscanenhancethevalueof HowtoBuildaStrongHigher-qualitybrandsachievegreatermarketshareandhigherprofitabilitythantheirinferiorrivals.TotalqualitymanagementtechniquesareincreasingbeingemployedtoraisequalityTopcompaniessuchasDell,BMW,Nokia,Inanunderstandtheimportanceofqualityinthebrand-buildingprocess.Creatingauniquepositioninthemarketceinvolvesacarefulchoiceoftargetmarketandestablishingaclearadvantageinthemindsofthosepeople.Abrandisacomplexsymbolthatcanconveyseverallevelsofmeanings(Kotler,etal,Attributes:abrandfirstbringstomindcertainproductBenefits:customerdonotbuyattributes,theybuybenefits.Attributesmustbetranslatedintofunctionalandemotionalbenefits.Values:abrandalsosayssomethingaboutthebuyer’sCulture:abrandalsorepresentsacertain ality:abrandalsoprojectsa ality.Forexample,consumersmightvisualiseaMercedesautoasbeingawealthy,middle-agedbusinessexecutive.Thebrandwillattractpeoplewhoseactualanddesiredself-imagedmatchthebrands’images.<seemoredetaileddetailednotesbelowforCompaniesshouldcarefullyysisthesymbolcontainedinbrandsandpositionittotargetAsmarketchangeandopportunitiesarise,repositioningmaybeneededtobuildbrandsfromtheirinitialbase.Forexample:Lucozadewasfirstbuiltasabrandprovidingenergytochildrenwhowereill.WhenmarketresearchfoundthatmothersweredrinkingLucozadeasamiddaypick-me-upitwasrepositionedaccordingly.Forexample:Nokiaalsobuiltitsbrandbyrepositioningfrombeingapapermanufacturertomarketleaderinphones.Well-blendedMarketerscanmaketheirbrandsmorenoticeablethroughattractivedisyorpackagedesign,alsothroughgeneratingcustomerfamiliaritywithbrandnames,brandlogsandabrand’svisualappearance.BeingResearchhasshownthatpioneerbrandsaremorelikelytobesuccessfulthanfollowerbrands.Beingfirstgiveabrandtheopportunitytocreateaclearpositioninthemindsoftargetcustomerbeforethecompetitionentersthemarket.Italsogivesthepioneertheopportunitytobuildcustomeranddistributorloyalty.Beingfirstcanalsobringthepotentialadvantagesofleadership,costadvantagesthroughtheexperiencecurveeffect,theacquisitionandcontrolofscarceresourcesandthecreatingofswitchingcoststolaterentrants.However:1)increasingcompetitions;2)competitivedisadvantagecomparedwiththoseusingearliertechnology.Forexample,thepioneerof3Gphonehandsettechnologyfailedtoachievesuccessbecausethehandsetswerebulkierandlessreliablethanthosebuilton2GLong-termBrandbuildingisalong-termactivity.Managementmustbepreparedtoprovideaconsistentlyhighlevelofbrandinvestmenttoestablishandmaintainthepositionofabrandinthemarketce.Companiesalsoneedtobepreparedtosufferlosseswhenmarketingbrandsisentirelynewmarkets.Forexample,Coca-ColawithstoodlossesinJapanfor15yearsbeforebuildingthemarketto eoneofitsmostprofitabletoday.WhyMergerorWhenmergeroracquisitiontakesceanewnamemaybechosentoidentifythe.(e.g.Legend→Desiretocreateanewimage/positioninthemarketSomebrandnamesareassociatedwithnegativeorold-fashionedimages.ThemovebyBTWirelesstodropitscorporatebrandnamewasbecauseithadacquiredanoldfashioned,bureaucraticimage.ThenewbrandnameO2waschosenbecauseitsoundedscientificandCorporatestrategyWhena diversifiesoutofitsoriginalproductcategory,theoriginalcorporatebrandnamemaybeconsideredtoolimiting.(e.g.BritishSteelhas eCorusasthewidensitsproductsbeyondBrandSometimesthenameofamajorproductbrandownedbya essofamiliartocustomerthatitsupersedesthecorporatebrand.(e.g.OICQ→QQ)InternationalmarketingAmajordriverforrebrandingisthedesiretoharmoniseabrandnameacrossnationalboundariesinordertocreateaglobalbrand.BRANDEXTENSIONANDAbrandextensionistheuseofanestablishedbrandnameonanewbrandwithinthesamebroadmarketorproductcategory.Forexample:Coca-ColahasextendeditsCokebrandintoDietCoke;hasextendeditscorebrandbylaunchingFroogle,Groups,Answers,Catalogues,CalendarandBook.Brandstretchingiswhenanestablishedbrandnameisusedforbrandsinunrelatedmarketsorproductcategories,suchastheuseoftheYamahapianosbrandnameonhi-fiequipment,skisandAdvantagesofbrandReducerisk:distributorsmaybereassuredaboutthe‘saleability’ofthenewbrandandthereforebemorewillingtostockit.Consumersappeartoattributethequalityassociationstheyhaveoftheoriginalbrandtothenewone.Costreduced:launchcostscanalsobereducedbyusingbrandextension.Sincetheestablishedbrandnameisalreadywellknown,thetaskofbuildingawarenessofthenewbrandiseased.Consequently,advertising,sellingandpromotionalcostsarereduced.Furthermore,thereisthelikelihoodofachievingadvertisingeconomiesofscalesinceadsfortheoriginalbrandanditsextensionsreineachother.Theintroductionoftheextensioncanbenefitsthecorebrandbecauseoftheeffectsofthepanyingmarketingexpenditure.Brandextensionsthatoffernofunctional,psychologicalorpriceadvantageoverrivalbrandsoftenfail.Thereisalsothedangerthatmarketingmanagementunderfunds(对…不足)thelaunchbelievingthatthespin-off(副产品)effectsfromtheoriginalbrandnamewillcompensate.Thiscanleadtolowawarenessandtrail.Brandextensionhasbeencriticisedasleadingtoamanagerialfocusonminormodifications,packagingchangesandadsratherthanthedevelopmentofrealinnovations.Thereisalsothedangerthatbadpublicityforonebrandaffectsthereputationofotherbrandsunderthesamename.TheVirginbrandnamewasindangerofbeingtarnishedatonetimeduetopoorpunctualityofitstrainsundertheVirginTrainsbrand.EthicIssuesConcerningProductAmajorconcernaboutproductsafetyhasbeentheissueofgeneticallymodifiedproducts.Noscientistcanbesurethatallofthisgeneticmanipulationcanbesafe.TheWordTradeOrganisationandtheUS ernmentsupportGMtechnology,startingthatitisnotonlysafebutenablesfarmerstocuttheirproductioncostsconsiderably.However,theEUremainssceptical,andGMfoodisabsentfromEuropeanOtherconcernsaboutproductsafetyrelatetotobacco,thelevelsoffat,sugarandsaltinfoods(obesityandheartproblems),andsugarinsoftdrinks.Suchissueshaveledtobansontobaccoadvertising,thesettingupofindependentbodiestoprotectconsumers’interestsinthefoodanddrinksindustries,andreductionsinthelevelsoffat,sugarandsaltinmanyfoodanddrinkbrands,particularlythelevelofsugarinfoodandsoftdrinksconsumerdbychildren.nnedManyproductsarenotdesignedtolastalongIssuesconcernswhatisanacceptablelengthoftimebeforerecementisIthastoberecognisedthatmanyconsumers ethechancetobuynewclothes,newapplianceswiththelatestfeaturesandthelatestmodelofcar.Criticsarguethatnnedobsolescencereducesconsumers’righttochoose’sincesomeconsumersmaybequitecontenttodriveanoldcarsolongasitbodysisfromrustandthecarfunctionsDeceptiveThiscanoccurwhenaproductappearsinanoversizedpackagetocreatetheimpressionthattheconsumerisbuyingmorethanisthecase.AsecondareawherepackagingmaybedeceptiveisthroughmisleadingThiscantaketheformofthesinofomission—forexample,thefailureofapackagetostatethattheproductcontainsgeneticallymodifiedsoyabeans.Thisrelatestotheconsumer’s‘righttobeinformed’,andcanincludethestatingofingredients,nutritionalcontentsandcountryoforiginonlabels.BrandingandDeveloCriticsofbrandingaccusethepracticeofconcentratingpowerandwealthinthehandsofcompaniesandeconomiesthatarealreadyrichandpowerful,whereaspoorcountrieshavetocompeteonprice.NaomiKlein:brandingconcentratespowerinthehandsofthealreadyrichandpowerful,whoexploitthelabourofdevelocountiesbysupportingthepayingoflowwageswhilecharginghighpricesfortheirproducts.AdditionalReadingNotes: ality(Aaker, alityisdefinedformallyasthesetofhumancharacteristicsassociatedwithaConsumereasilycanthinkaboutbrandsasiftheywerecelebritiesorfamoushistoricalfiguresandastheyrelatetoone’sownself,whichmaybedueinparttothestrategiesusedbyadvertiserstoimbueabrand alitytraitssuchasificationandthecreationofuser alitytraitsassociatedwithCoca-Colaarecool,all-American,andreal;thesetraitsarerelativelyenduringanddifferentia