UNDP-聚焦亚洲：企业问责制与气候变化（英）

AsiainFocus

CORPORATEACCOUNTABILITY

ANDCLIMATE

CHANGE

WHITEPAPER

WRITTENBY

UNDPistheleadingUnitedNationsorganisationfightingtoendtheinjusticeofpoverty,

inequality,andclimatechange.Workingwithourbroadnetworkofexpertsandpartnersin

170countries,wehelpnationstobuildintegrated,lastingsolutionsforpeopleandplanet.

Learnmoreat

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Thefindings,interpretationsandviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseofthe

author(s)anddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseoftheUnitedNations,includingUNDP,

ortheUNMemberStates.

Copyright©UNDP2023

Allrightsreserved.

FormoreinformationontheBusinessandHumanRightsinAsiaprogramme

visittheB+HRAsiawebsite

here

orfollowat:

@BizHRAsia_UNDP

/UNDPBHR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

—

AsiainFocus:CorporateAccountabilityandClimateChangeisareportwrittenbyEconomistImpactinconsultationwithandsupportedbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)andtheEuropeanUnion(EU).ThefindingsarebasedonanextensiveliteraturereviewandanexpertinterviewprogrammeconductedbyEconomistImpactbetweenAugustand

December2022.

Globaleffortstolimittheaveragetemperatureincreaseto1.5°Celsiushavefallenshort.DespiteearnestpledgesmadeinParissevenyearsagoduringCOP21,theworldhasonlygottenhotterandweatherpatternsmoreunpredictable.Consequently,thehumanrightsofmillions,ifnotbillions,ofpeopleinAsiaareatgraverisk.Thisreportaimstohighlightthelinksbetweenclimatechangeandhumanrights,andthecriticalrolethatbusinessplaysinaddressingboth.

Thisreportisalsointendedtoserveasaresourceforpolicymakersandbusinessleaderstryingtomitigatecontributionstoclimatechangeanditsadverseimpactonhumanrights.Itincludespolicyrecommendationsforthepublic,private,andnon-profitsectorsthatalignwiththeUNGuidingPrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights(UNGPs)andothergloballyrecognisedframeworks.

ThefirstreportinthisAsiainFocusseries,entitledCleanAirandtheBusinessandHumanRightsAgenda,calledforurgentactiontoaddressairpollutioninordertosafeguardhumanrightsandaddressclimatechange.1Thereportdemonstratedthatairpollutionhasvast,negativeimplicationsforeconomiesacrosstheregion.Italsoprovidedrecommendationsformitigatingairpollution’simpacts.

BuildingonthiswhitepaperandtheCleanAirreport,UNDPwillpublishasupplementaryactionbrieftoprovidefurtherguidanceonentrypointsforengagement.

ThepresentreportwaswrittenbyEconomistImpact.TheauthorsareBilgeArslan,GillianParker,BhagyaRajRathodandDivyaSharmaNag.ThereportwaseditedbyPaulKielstra.CherylFuerteandSachinJavalecreatedthedigitalhub.

Expertinsights

Thanksareduetothefollowingpeople(inalphabeticalorderbysurname)fortheirtimeandinsights:

+RashyidRedzaAnwarudin,chiefsustainabilityofficer,

SimeDarbyPlantation

+DianeArcher,seniorresearchfellow,Stockholm

EnvironmentInstitute

+PrarthanaBorah,director,CDPIndia

+GregorioRafaelBueta,adjunctfacultymember,

AteneodeManilaUniversitySchoolofLaw+AntonyCrockett,publicinternationallawandcross-

borderdisputeresolutionspecialist,HerbertSmith

Freehills

+JosephD’Cruz,CEO,RoundtableonSustainablePalm

Oil(RSPO)

+DrIanFry,specialrapporteuronhumanrightsand

climatechange

+DrSamGeall,CEO,ChinaDialogueTrust

+NataliaGrillon,executivedirector,OpenApparel

Registry

+KimHellström,greeninvestmentprojectmanager,

H&M

+CatherineHigham,policyfellowClimateChange

LawsoftheWorld,LondonSchoolofEconomics/GranthamResearchInstituteonClimateChangeandtheEnvironment

+JasonJudd,executivedirector,GlobalLabour

Institute,CornellUniversity

+HanhLe,South-EastAsiaseniordirector,Rocky

MountainInstitute(RMI)

+SarahNegro,globalpublicaffairsseniormanager,

H&M

+BrynnO’Brien,executivedirector,AustralasianCentre

forCorporateResponsibility

+OyChengPhang,headofsustainabilityadvisory

services,KPMGMalaysia

+SaraPhillips,associateresearcher/consultant,

CommunityClimateResilienceinCriticalMineral

SupplyChains,ChulalongkornUniversity

+StefanoSavi,director,GlobalPlatformforSustainable

NaturalRubber(GPSNR)

+PraveenSinghavi,president,APRILGroup

+PaulaValencia,seniorassociate,RockyMountain

Institute

+VanessaZimmerman,founderandCEO,PillarTwo

1EconomistImpact.2022.“CleanAirandtheBusinessandHumanRightsAgenda.”AsiainFocus.

/

.

3

ThanksarealsoduetothefollowingUNDPexperts:

+SagitaAdesywi,businessandhumanrightsspecialist,

UNDPIndonesia

+JehanWanAziz,businessandhumanrightsspecialist,

UNDPMalaysia

+MehrunaIslamChowdhury,businessandhumanrights

specialist,UNDPBangladesh

+ZoljargalGantumur,businessandhumanrights

specialist,UNDPMongolia

+BuiHien,businessandhumanrights,projectmanager,

UNDPVietnam

+RoosIjsendijk,humanrightsandinclusivegovernance

specialist,UNDPVietnam

+NusratKhan,businessandhumanrightsspecialist,

UNDPIndia

+SwethaKolluri,headofexperimentation,UNDPIndia

+AmitKumar,headofpovertyandinclusivegrowth,

UNDPIndia

+HuanV.Nguyen,businessandhumanrightsspecialist,

UNDPVietnam

+JyotirajPatra,climatechangeandadaptation

specialist,UNDPIndia

+MyanthiPeiris,businessandhumanrightsspecialist,

UNDPSriLanka

+A.K.M.AzadRahman,projectcoordinator,Local

GovernmentInitiativeonClimateChange(LoGIC)&

nationalcoordinator,NationalAdaptationPlan,UNDP

Bangladesh

+TomokazuSerizawa,programmespecialistforclimate

andsecurityrisk,UNDPBangkokRegionalHub(UNDP

BRH)

+TarineeSuravoranon,businessandhumanrights

specialist,UNDPThailand

+YusukeTaishi,seniortechnicaladvisorforclimate

changeadaptation,UNDPThailand

+BuiVietHien,programmeanalystonclimatechange

andresilience,UNDPVietnam

+ChristineWellington-Moore,Asia-Pacificregional

advisoronSDGIntegration,UNDPBRH

+RamithaWijethunga,nationalprogrammeofficer,

UNDPSriLanka

Fortheirtechnicalsupport,wewouldalsoliketoextend

ourgratitudetoSeanLees,businessandhumanrights

specialist,BelindaHlatshwayo,monitoringandevaluation

officer,andJiahuanYuan,communicationofficer,atthe

UNDPBRH.

Whileeveryefforthasbeentakentoverifytheaccuracy

ofthisinformation,EconomistImpactcannotaccept

anyresponsibilityorliabilityforreliancebyanyperson

onthisreportoranyoftheinformation,opinionsor

conclusionssetoutinthisreport.Thefindingsandviews

expressedinthereportdonotnecessarilyreflectthe

viewsofthesponsor.

4

5

CONTENTS

—

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

3

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

6

INTRODUCTION

8

THEASIANCLIMATECHANGECHALLENGE:

ALEADERINEMISSIONSANDRISKS

1

0

i.Theregion’sexplosioningreenhousegases10

ii.Climate-relatedphysicalandeconomic

challengesthatwillrequireattention11

iii.Newlegalrisks13

Implicationsoftreatingahealthyenvironmentasahumanright

iv.

1

4

15

15

16

18

18

STEPSTOWARDADDRESSINGCLIMATE-CHANGE-RELATED

HUMANRIGHTSIMPACTS20

20

21

iii.Industryobservationsonclimatechangeandsupplychains22

a.Spotlightonthegarmentindustry22

b.Spotlightonthepalmoilandpaperindustries23

c.Spotlightoncriticalmineralsandtheminingindustry24

THEPATHFORWARD25

GOVERNANCEDEFICIENCIESANDPRACTICAL

PROBLEMSHOLDBACKPROGRESS

i.Rulesandactionplansaplenty

ii.Shortcomingsingovernance

iii.Practicalchallengesfacinggovernments

iv.Practicalchallengesfacingsmallbusiness

i.Considerationsforgovernmentofficials

ii.Considerationsforcorporateexecutives

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

—

ExtremeweathereventsareunfoldinginclosesuccessionthroughoutAsia,intensifyingconcernsovertheimpactsofclimatechangeonbothhumanrightsandeconomicgrowth.Moreworryingstill,expertsbelievethatthereisa48%probabilitythat,by2026,theworldwillexperienceaveragetemperaturesof1.5degreesCelsiushigherthanthefigurebeforetheindustrialrevolution.Moredisruptiveeventswillcertainlyaccompanythischange.

Withitsvastenginesofeconomicgrowth,Asiaisnowtheepicentreofconcern.Inthepasttwodecades,theworldhasseena46%riseincarbonemissions,drivenlargelybythegrowthinAsianindustry.Incontrast,thenetfigureforemissionsfortherestoftheworldhasdeclinedslightlyoverthesameperiod.Asiaisalsoconsideredtheregionmostvulnerabletoclimatechange’simpacts.Thecontinent’surbancentresarehighlyexposedtotherisksofsealevelrise,extremeheat,typhoonsanddrought.

IfAsiaiscentraltoeffortstoaddressclimatechangeatthegloballevels,thenbusinessacrosstheregionmuststepuptothechallengeofclimatechangemitigationandadaptation.Buttheycannotdothisalone.Climatefinancingandtechnologytransferswillneedtobeprovidedbyadvancedeconomiesfromotherregions,economiesthatonahistoricbasis,areresponsibleforthebulkofgreenhousegases(GHG)inouratmospheretoday.

Thisreport,AsiainFocus:CorporateAccountabilityandClimateChange,looksattheroleandpotentialofAsianindustrytoleadonclimateaction,atopicthatinevitablyrequiresareviewofgovernmentregulationandstatecommercialactivityaswell.Relyingonin-depthinterviewswithover40expertsfrombusiness,government,NGOs,academia,thinktanksandinternationalorganisations,aswellasextensivedeskresearch,thereport’skeyfindingsinclude:

Asia’scontinuinguseofcoalhasdrivenitspercapitacarbonemissionstoequalthatoftheglobalaverage.In2000,theregionhad61%oftheearth’spopulationandaccountedforjust37%ofitscarbonemissions.In2021,thesefigureswere59%and58%,respectively.Lookingahead,Asia’sGHGoutputislikelytorise.Coalremainsthedominantfuelforelectricitygeneration,accountingforover50%ofpoweroutputinChina,India,andIndonesia,andby2031,thisisprojectedtostillbethecase,exceptinChina,wherethefigurewilllikelybereducedto45%.2WhileblamecannotbecastonAsiafortoday’sclimatecrisis,whatbusinessandgovernmentintheregiondotoday,willimpactonourplanetforyearstocome.

Climateimpactsarealreadycreatingsignificantpublichealthrisks,foodsecurityandeconomiccostsonthecontinent.Thenumberofclimate-changeinducedheatwaveshasrisenrapidlyinrecentdecadesacrosstheglobe,withsomeofthemostextremecasesoccurringinSouthAsia.Apublichealthhazard,climatechangealsohasimportanteconomicimplications.ThecountrymostaffectedbyheatstressisIndia,whichlost4.3%ofworkinghoursin1995andisprojectedtolose5.8%ofworkinghoursin2030.3Agriculturewillbeamongthemostaffectedsectorsbyclimatechange,impactingeconomiesanddisplacingpeoplefacinggreaterlevelsoffoodinsecurity.TheIPCCstatesina2022reportthattheimpactofclimate-relatedextremesonfoodsecurity,nutritionandlivelihoodsare“particularlyacuteandsevere”forpeoplelivinginAsia.Theregionisalsohometo11ofthe15citiesmostatriskfromclimate-change-inducedflooding.AccordingtoaGreenpeacestudy,by2050theAsia-PacificregionmayloseaboutUS$1.2trneachyearincapitalstockfromfloodevents.

Companiesandgovernmentsfaceincreasinglegalandcompliancerisks.Worldwide,litigationrelatedtoclimatechangeroughlytripledbetween2018and2022.Meanwhile,EUregulationswithextraterritorialreachareincreasinglyholdingcompaniesinAsiaandelsewheretohigherhumanrightsandenvironmentalstandards.Otherlegalandcompliancerisksrelatetotheenvironmentalimpactsofbusinessoperationsonland,includingdeforestation,asstakeholdersareincreasinglyturningtothecourtswheresuchactivitythreatenstheirrights.Since2010,theBusiness&HumanRightsResourceCentrehasdocumented200allegationsofbusiness-related,landrightsabusesandIndigenousPeoples’rightsabuses.

Deficienciesingovernanceundercuttheresponsetoclimatechangeintheregion.Asiangovernmentshavesignednumerousclimatepledgesandplans,andpassedamultitudeofregulationsgoverningcorporatebehaviourtowardstheenvironment.Yetenforcementcanbeundercutbycronyism,corruption,pooraccountabilityandweakhumanrightsprotections.ProgressonclimatechangeisalsoconstrainedinmanyAsianstatesduetoalackofthecivicspacenecessarytoholdbadactorsaccountable.Theregionisseeingagrowingnumberofattacksonenvironmentalandhumanrightsdefenders,undercuttingconstructiveconversationsonclimateaction.

2EconomistIntelligenceUnit.2022.“Asia’senergytransition:atoughbalancingact”

/n/asias-energy-transition-a-tough-balancing-act/

3Estrada,Botzen.2019.“Workingonawarmerplanet:Theimpactofheatstressonlabourproductivityanddecentwork.”ILO.

/wcmsp5/

groups/public/dgreports/dcomm/publ/documents/publication/wcms_711919.pdf

.

6

Alackofpoliticalwill–arisingfromaperceivedtensionbetweeneconomicdevelopmentandthecostsofreducingcarbonemissions–impedesprogressinAsia.AmarkedlackofpoliticalwilltoaddressGHGemissionsexistsacrossmuchofAsia,dueinparttooverridingeconomicgrowthpriorities.Manygovernmentshavechosentorelyoncheapfossilfuelstogettheireconomiesbackontrackfollowingtwoyearsofcovid-19lockdowns.Highfoodandfuelpriceshavealsomadepolicy-makersmorereluctanttoimposefurthercompliancemandatesonbusiness.Inaddition,takingoneffortstointegrategreensourcesofenergywouldrequirelargeoutlaysofcapitalfromcountrieswithalreadyconstrainedfinancialresourcesandanynumberofpressingneeds.Evendevelopingthecapacityandtechnicalexpertisetomonitorcorporateemissionswouldplaceaheavystrainonlimitedstatebudgets.

Smallandmediumenterprises(SMEs)willstruggletocomplywithclimaterelatedregulations.Largecompaniesarebetterplacedtoadjusttoheightenedcompliancerequirements.GHGmitigationandclimatechangeadaptationarenoexception.SMEsacrossAsiawillneedassistancetopayforandmeettherequirementsofgovernmentclimatechangestrategies.

TheUNGuidingPrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights(UNGPs)andothergloballyrecognisedframeworkscanhelpgovernmentsandbusinessesaddressthechallengesofclimatechangewithinahumanrightscontext.

+Governments:Threeareasareofparticularrelevance

forstatesinthisfield,thefirstofwhichinvolveslawandpolicyformation.Inadditiontotranslatingthenewlyrecognisedrighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentintodomesticlaw,governmentsmustensurethatcorporateregulatorypoliciesaremade,andenacted,inawaythatisconsistentwithhumanrightsprinciples.Thisincludesensuringpublicparticipationindecision-makingoninfrastructureandminingprojects,anapproachthatisnotconsideredcommontoAsia.Second,statesshouldleveragetheirowneconomicactivityinwaysthatpromotecarbonmitigationandadaptation.Thisincludesboththegovernment’sownspendingintheeconomyandtheoperationofthemanysubstantialstate-ownedenterprises(SOE)inAsia.Third,governmentsneedtoestablishandenforceenvironmentalregulationswhilealsosupportingprogrammestobuildcapacitiesofSMEstocomply.

+Companies:Everyfirmshouldconductongoing

assessmentsoftheimpactoftheiroperationsontheenvironment,includingbutnotlimitedtotheguidanceprovidedbytheUNGPsonhumanrightsduediligence.Theseassessmentscanhelpenterprisestoreducetheircarbonfootprintsandassesswaystolessentheirimpactonwater,forestsandbiodiversityandairquality,andanyimplicationstheseimpactsmayhaveonhumanrights.Theseanalysesalsoneedtotakeabroadviewandincludethebehaviourof

suppliersandcustomerstoensurethereisagenuineenhancementofhumanrightsandenvironmentalrightsperformance.Finally,companiesmustbepreparedtoprovideforremedies,iftheyfindthattheyhavefallenshortofhumanrightsorenvironmentalstandards.

Threebusinesssectorshavelessonsfortherest

Itisdifficulttomakedetailedstatementsaboutwhatcompaniesshoulddotoaddressthehumanrightsrelatedimpactsofclimatechangewithoutlookingatthecontextinwhichbusinessoperates.Accordingly,thisstudyexaminesthreeindustriesinmoredetail:

+Garmentsandfashion:Asiaistheglobalcentre

ofgarmentproduction,includingfootwear.Theindustry’schallengesinclude:thehighlevelsofenergyconsumptionwithinitslengthysupplychains;thelargenumberoffactorieslikelytobefloodedinthenextdecade;andtheimpactofheatstressonworkers.Smallercompaniesinmajorlabelsupplychainsseemtobedoinglittletoreduceemissionsortoadapttoclimatechange–thisaccordingtoourexpertinterviewees.SMEsinthegarmentindustrywillthusneedto“sharpentheirgame”aslargelabelsfocusincreasinglyontheiroverallGHGfootprints.Leadingplayersintheretailsectorarealsotryingtosourcemoregreenenergy,whichisprovingdifficultinAsia.

+Palmoilandpaper:Thesesectorsareoftenassociated

withhighlevelsofdeforestation.Aswiththegarmentsector,resistanceorinabilitytocomplywithresponsiblebusinesspracticestandardsmay

bemorelikelyamongthemanysmallproducerswhoselltolargercompanies.Largercompanies,drivenbyreputationalconsiderations–ratherthanbytherelativelysmallregulatoryfinesforcausingenvironmentaldamage–aremostlytakingtwoapproachestoimprovestandardsacrossthesupplychain.Oneissimplytoreducethenumberofsuppliersandcutoutthosethatdonotmeetindustrystandards.Theotherapproachinvolvesworkingwithsmallercompaniesoveralongperiodoftimetohelpthemimprove.

+Miningofrare-earthminerals:Thetechnologybehind

greenenergygenerationwillrequireagrowingvolumeofrare-earthelements.Yet,civilsocietygroupsmakefrequentallegationsofhumanrightsandenvironmentalwrongdoingbytheminingsector.Miningcompaniesinvolvedin“transitionalminerals”willbeunderintensepressuretoconducthumanrightsandenvironmentalduediligence(HREDD),andotherprocesses.FailuretoconductmeaningfulHREDDandreduceadverseimpactsonhumanrightsmaydelaytheenergytransition.

7

INTRODUCTION

—

InAugust2022,three600-year-oldBuddhistfiguresgazedoutfromarockperchalongtheYangtzeRiverinChina.Theirserenefacesbeliedthetroublingomenwhichtheyrepresented.Thestatueswerevisibleonlybecausetheriverwasatitslowestlevelinlivingmemory.

AnunprecedentedheatwaveinChina,compoundedbydroughtconditionslaybehindadramaticplungeintheYangtze’sflow.Assuch,theemergenceoftheBuddhiststatuesserveasaportentofthekindofdirechallengeswhichclimatechangewillbring.Chinaisnotaloneinfacingthesecircumstances.HulkingwrecksoncesubmergednowstickoutofthebedoftheDanubeRiver.InNevada,humanremainsarenowemerginginthedryingbedofLakeMead.ExceptionaldroughtsinEuropeandNorthAmericaarealsotoblame.Ominousdiscoverieslikethesearemorelikelyintheyearstocomeasclimatechangeprocessestakeholdandtemperaturesrise.

Earnestgovernmentalpledgesandstirringdeclarationsatinternationalconferenceshavefocusedonlimitingtheaverageglobaltemperatureriseto1.5degreesCelsiusby2100.Unfortunately,thisalreadylooksoutofreach.TheUKMeteorologicalOfficesaysthatthechanceofglobalnear-surfacetemperatureexceeding1.5°Cabovepre-industriallevelsatleastoneyearbetween2022and2026isaboutaslikelyasnot(48%).4Humanitymaybeenteringintothe1.5°Cwarmerworld–oratleastaglimpseofit–asearlyas2026.Countries,andcompanies,thusneedtoacttominimisetheextentofthedisruptionandprepareforamoreuncertainphysicalenvironment.

Recently,therehavebeenimportantdevelopmentsaddressingenvironmentalissuesattheinternationallevel.InJuly2022,theUNGeneralAssembly(UNGA)passedaresolutionnearlyunanimouslythatrecognisedaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentasauniversalhumanright.5Althoughtheresolutionisnon-binding,andthemeaningof“clean”,“healthy”and“sustainable”lackinternationallyagreedlegaldefinitions,6thewideadoptionoftheresolutionbyUNMemberStateswilllikelymeanmorefocusonstatedutiestoaddressthehumanrightsimpactsofclimatechange.

GregorioRafaelBueta,adjunctfacultymemberatAteneodeManilaUniversitySchoolofLawexplainsthattheUNGAresolution“addsalayerofresponsibilityforbusinessesacrossAsiaandtheworld.It’sthroughaddingthislayerthatwestarttalkingaboutacleanandhealthy

environment,whichisnowpartandparcelofbasichumanrights–foreveryone”.Climatechangeisamajorfactorthatunderminesthefunctioningofclean,healthy,andsustainableenvironments.Bythismeasurethen,therighttoahealthyenvironmentincludesclimateconsiderations.

Yet,evenbeforetheUNGAresolution,internationalagreementsontheenvironmentwereadoptinghumanrightslanguage.TheoverarchingdeclarationoftheCOP27climatetalksin2022statesthat,whentakingactiontoaddressclimatechange,businessesandgovernmentsshould“respect,promoteandconsidertheirrespectiveobligationsonhumanrights,therighttohealth,therightsofIndigenousPeoples,localcommunities,migrants,children,personswithdisabilitiesandpeopleinvulnerablesituations,andtherighttodevelopment,aswellasgenderequality,empowermentofwomenandintergenerationalequity”.7

Accordingly,policymakersandbusinessleadersmustconsiderheightenedclimateandcomplianceriskswheretheirdecisionsandoperationsexacerbate,orcreatenew,climatevulnerabilitiesforcommunitiesorecosystems.Thisgoesbeyondthetraditionalfieldsassociatedwithenvironmentalprotection.Forcompanies,thiswillaffectanynumberofchoicesonwhereandhowtheydobusiness.Forstates,thismeansreviewinglegislation,developingenforcementcapacitiesandensuringthatcorporateregulatorypolicies,andtradeandinvestmentpoliciesarefullyinformedbypre-existingandlegallybindingcommitmentstohumanrights.

StakeholdersinAsiaarenoexceptiontothesepressuresandcircumstances.8Givenitssizeandvulnerabilitiesoftheregion,Asianbusinessleadersandpolicymakersmustplayaleadingroleinthebattleagainstclimatechange.

Globally,countriesarefallingshortinreducingGHGemissionsandineffortstoadapttothechangingclimate.Insufficientmeasuresandinadequatesupporttodevelopingnationspersist,whileclimaterisksescalate,puttingatriskthelivesandlivelihoodsofmillions,ifnotbillionsofpeople.ThelatestIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)reportwarnsthatphysicalclimaterisks–includingdangerouslyhighheatandhumiditylevels,alongwithrisingseasandflooding–willbesettheentirecontinentofAsia.9TheIPCCalsostatesthatevenifeffectiveactionstolimitglobaltemperatureincreaseto1.5°Cwereputinplace,lossesanddamagesstemming

4

.uk/wmolc/WMO_GADCU_2022-2026.pdf

5Tartes,T.,2022,“UNGeneralAssemblydeclaresaccesstoacleanandhealthyenvironmentauniversalhumanright.”UNNews,28July2022.

https://news

.

org/en/story/2022/07/1123482

un..Accessed12December2022.

6“UNGeneralAssemblyadoptslandmarkresolutiononrighttoahealthyenvironment,”Cl