历史学论文外文翻译

theSongDynasty.FoollwingtheTangcollapsewarlordsruledChinauntilheSongDynastyreimposedcentralizedimperialruleintheatetenthcentury.Thoughsurvivedformorethanthreecenturies,theSongdynasty(960-1279C.E.)neverbuiltaverypowerfulstate.Songrulersmistrustedmilitaryleaders,andtheyplacedmuchmoreemphasisonciviladministration,industry,education,andtheartsthanonmilitaryaffairs.ThefirstSongemperor,SongTaizu(reigned960-1279C.E.),himselfinauguratedthispolicy.SongTaizubeganhiscareeraajuniormilitaryofficerservingoneofthemostpowerfulwarlordsinnorthernChina.Hehadareputationforhonestyandeffectiveness,andin960histroopsproclaimedhimemperor.Duringthenextseveralyears,heandhisarmysubjectedthewarlordstotheirauthorityandconsolidatedSongcontrolthroughoutChina.Hethenpersuadedhisgeneralstoretirehonorablytoalifeofleisuresothattheywouldnotseektodisplacehim,andhesetaboutorganizingacentralizedadministrationthatplacedmilitaryforcesundertightsupervision.SongTaizuregardedallstateofficials,evenminorfunctionariesindistantprovinces,asservantsoftheimperialgovernment.Inexchangefortheirloyalty,Songrulersrewardedtheseofficialshandsomely.TheyvastlyexpandedthebureaucracybasedonmeritbycreatingmoreopportunitiesforindividualstoseekaConfucianeducationandtakecivilserviceexaminations.TheyacceptedmanymorecandidatesintothebureaucracythantheirSuiandTangpredecessors,andtheyprovidedgeneroussalariesforthoswhoqualifiedforgovernmentappointments.Theyevenplacedcivilbureaucratsinchargeofmilitaryforces.ThesongapproachtoadministrationresultedinamorecentralizedimperialgovernmentthanearlierChinesedynastieshadenjoyed.Butitcausedtwomigproblemsthatweakenedthedynastyandeventuallybroughtaboutitsfall.Thefirstprolemwasfinancial:theenormousSongbureaucracydevouredChina’ssurplusproduction.Asthenumberofbureaucratsandthesizeoftheirrewardsgrew,theimperialtreasurycameundertremendouspressure.Effortstoraisetaxesaggravatedthepeasants,whomountedtwomajorrebellionsintheearlytwelfthcentury.Bythattime,however,bureaucratsdominatedtheSongadministrationtothepointthatitwasimpossibletoreformthesystem.Thesecondproblemwasmilitary.Scholarbureaucratsgenerallyhadlittlemilitaryeducationandlittletalentformilitaryaffairs,yettheyledSongarmiesinthefieldandmademilitaryandmakemilitarydecisions.ItwasnocoincidencethatnomadicpeopleflourishedalongChina’snorthernborderthroughouttheSongdynasty.Fromtheearlytenththroughtheearlytwelfthcentury,theKhitan,aseminomadicpeoplefromManchuria,ruledavastempirestretchingfromnorthernKoreatoMongolia.DuringthefirsthalfofatheSongdynasty,theKhitandemandedandreceivedlargetributepaymentsofsilkandsilverfromtheSongstatetothesouth.Intheearlytwelflycentury,thenomadicJurchenconqueredtheKhitan,overrannorthernChina,andcapturedtheSongcapital.ThereaftertheSongdynastysurvivedonlyinsouthernChina,sharingaborderwiththeJurchenstateaboutmidwaybetweentheYellowRiverandtheYangziRiveruntil1279,whenMongolforcesincorporatedallofChinaintheirempireandendedthedynasty.Neo-confucianismTheSongemperorsdidnotpersecuteBuddhists,buttheyactivelysupportednativeChineseculturaltraditioninhopesoflimitingtheinfluenceofforeignreligions.TheycontributedparticularlytotheConfucian.TheysponsoredthestudiesofConfucianscholars,forexample,andsubsidizedtheprintingangdisseminationofConfucianwritings.YettheConfuciantraditionoftheSongdynastydifferedfromthatofearliertimes.TheearliestConfucianshadconcentratedresolutelyonpracticalissusesofpoliticsandmorality,sincetheytooktheorganizationofastableorderastheirprincipalconcern.ConfuciansoftheSongdynastystudiedtheclassicworksoftheirtradition,buttheyalsobecamefamiliarwiththewritingsofBuddhists.TheyfoundmuchtoadmireinBuddhistthought.Buddhismnotonlyofferedatraditionoflogicalthoughtandargumentationbutalsodealtwithissues,suchasthenatureofthesoulandtheindividual’srelationshipwiththecosmos,notsystematicallyexploredbyConfucianthinkers.ThusConfuciansoftheSongdynastydrewadealofinspirationfromBuddhism.BecausetheirthoughtreflectedtheinfluenceofBuddhismaswellasoriginalConfucianvalues,ithascometoknownasneo-Confucianism.ThemostimportantrepresentativeofSongneo-ConfucianismwasthephilosopherZhuxi(1130-1200C.E.).Aprolificwriter,ZhuXimaintainedadeppcommitmenttoConfucianvaluesemphasizingproperpersonalbehaviorandsocialharmony.Among.hiswritingswasaninfluentialtreatiseentitledFamilyRitualsthatprovideddetailedinstructionsforweddings,funerals,venerationofancestors,andotheirfamilyceremonies.AsagoodConfucian.ZhuXiconsidereditamatterofthehighestimportancethatindividualsplaytheirproperrolesbothintheirfamilyandinthelargersociety.YetZhuXibecamefascinatedwiththephilosophicalandspeculativefeaturesofBuuddhistthought.HearguedingoodConfucianfashionfortheobservanceofhighmoralstandards,andhebelievedthatacademicandphilosophicalinvestigationswereimportantforpracticalaffairs.Butheconcentratedhisowneffortsonabstractandabstruseissuesofmoretheoreticalthanpracticalsignificance.Hewroteextensivelyonmetaphysicalthemessuchasthenatureofreality.HearguedinamannerreminiscentofPlatothattwoelementsaccountedforallphysicalbeing:li,aprinciplesomewhatsimilartoPlato’sFormsorIdeasthatdefinestheessenceofthebeing,andqi,itsmaterialform.Neo-Confucianismranksasimportantculturaldevelopmentfortworeasons.First,itillustratesthedeepinfluenceofBuddhisminChinesesociety.Eventhoughtheneo-ConfuciansrejectedBuddhismasafaith,theirwritingsadaptedBuddhistthemesandreasoningtoConfucianinterestsandvalues.Second,neo-ConfucianisminfluencedeastAsianthoughtoveraverylongterm.InChina,neo-ConfucianismenjoyedthestatusofanofficiallyrecognizedcreedfromtheSongdynastyuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury,andinlandsthatfellwithinChina’sculturalorbit-particularlyKorea,Vietnam,andJapan-neo-Confucianismshapedphilosophical,political,andmoralthoughtforhalfamillenniumandmore.(JerryH.Bentley,HerbertF.Ziegler.Traditions&encounters:aglobalperspectiveonthepast[M].NewYork,McGraw-HillHigherEducation,2003.)SunggoldenageTheSungemperorswetemarkedlypassiveintheirexternalrelationscomparedtotheirHanandTangpredecessorsTheydidnotbeginwithgreatcampaignsreestablishingimperialfrontiersintheheartofEurasia.InsteadthesecondSungemperormodestlyattemptedtoregainfromnomadcontrolmerelytheterritotybetweenPekingandtheGreatWall.Buthewasdisastrouslydefeated,andhissuccessorgaveupclaimtothisregion,andevenpaidthenomadsanannual“gift”,whichinfactwasthinlyveiledtribute.ThustheSungneverrecoveredthenortheastterritoriesinManchuria,northenorthwestterritotiesthatprovidedaccesstotheoverlandroutestothewest.ThiswasagraveweaknessfortheSungdynasty,leavingitvulnerabletonomadicincursions.Thepolicyofpaying“gift”provedviablefoeacenturyandahalf,butdisastercamewhenaSungemperormadearashattempttorecoverthenortheasternlands.HewasencouragedtodosowhentherulingnomadsinthatregionweredefeatedbynewcomersfromNorthManchuria.Takingadvantageofwhatappearedtobeanopportunity,theemperorsenthisarmiesintoManchuria.InsteadofeasyvictorytheysustainedacrushingdefeatthatwasfollowedbymassiveinvasionofNorthChina.TheSungdefensescrumpledandthedynastywasleftonlywiththeYangtzeValleyincentralChina,andthelandstothesouth.Consequentlythesecondhalfofthedynasty,from1127to1279,isknownastheSouthernSung;thefirstlhalf,between960and1127,iscalledtheNorthernSung.ThisdynastywasmuchberatedbylaterChinesehistoriansforfailinginitiallytoregaintheoutlyingprovinces,andthensufferingthelossoftheentirenorthernhalfofcountry.Thiscriticismcannotbedenied,yetitisalsotruethatinmanyrespectsChinesecivilizationreacheditsapogeeduringthecenturiesoftheT’angandtheSung.Thiswasparticularlysointhefieldofculture.DuringthesecenturiesappearedthevastencyclopediasofBuddhisttextsandConfucianclassics;thecomprehensivedynastichistorieswrittenbyteamsofscholars;themasterpiecesofscoresofgreatpoetsandartists;theartofcalligraphy,depictedonscrollsprizedashighlyaspaintings;thebeautifulporcelainasthinasglassandalmostastransparent;thepricelessinventionofprintingthatwasutilizedforthemassduplicationanddistributionofBuddhistscriptures;andtheextraordinaryadvancesinscienceandtechnologywhichreonlynowbeingadequatelycomprehended.(SeeChapter12,sectionⅢ.)Inadditiontoitsculturalattainments,theSungperiodisnoteworthyforaveritablecommercialrevolutionthatwasquitesignificantforallEurasia.Therootsaretobefoundinamarkedincreaseintheproductivityofchina’seconomySteadytechnologicalimprovementraisedtheoutputofthetraditionalindustriesagriculturelikewisewasstimulatedbytheintroductionofaquicklymaturingstrainofricethatallowedtwocropstobegrowneachseasonwhereonlyonehadbeenpossiblebefore.AlsonewwatercontrolprojectsundertakenbytheSunggreatlyexpandedtheacreageofirrigatedpaddyfields.Thusitestimatedthatrhericecropdoubledbetweentheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.Thisincreasingproductivitymadepossibleacorrespondingincreaseinpopulation,whichinturnfurtherstimulatedproductionininteractingfashion.Thevolumeoftradealsorosewiththequickeningtempoofeconomicactivity.ForthefirsttimelargecitiesappearedinChinathatwereprimarilycommercialratherthanadministrativecenters.Evenmoremarkedthanthisspurtindomestictradewasthatinforeigntrade.ConsiderableoverseascommercehadbeencarriedonsinceHantimes,butduringtheTAng,andmoreespeciallyduringtheSung,thevolumeofforeigntradefarsurpassedallpreviousrecords.Thebasisforthisburgeoningtradewas,ofcourse,theunprecedentedproductivityofChina’seconomy.Importantalsoweretheimprovementsinmaritimetechnology,includingtheuseofcompass,ofanadjustablecenterboardkeel,andofcottonsailsinplaceofbambooslats.FinallyoverseaswasquickenedalsobytheinitiativeofMoslemmerchantsandmarinerswhowerethegreatentrepreneursinAsianseasatthisperiod.TheendresultwasthatforthefirsttimetheseaportsratherthantheoldoverlandroutesbecomeChina’sprincipalcontactwiththeoutsideworld.IndicativeofChina’seconomicleadershipatthistimeisthefactthatherexportsweremostlymanufacturedgoodssuchassilk,porcelains,booksandpaintings,whiletheimportsweremostlyrawmaterialssuchasspices,minerals,andhorses.FinallyitshouldbenotedthatduringtheSungtheChinesethemselvesforthefirsttimeengagedonalargescaleinoverseastrade,nolongerdependinglargelyonforeignintermediaries.Inconclusion,Chinaduringthesungwaswellonthewaytobecomingagreatmaritimepower.ButtheallimportantfactforworldhistoryaswellasforChinese,isthatthisthispotentiatitywasneverrealized.And,equallysignificant,thisveritablecommercialrevolutionoftheSungerahadnoneoftheexplosiverepercussionsonChinesesocietythatacorrespondingcommercialrevolutionhadonWesternsociety(SeesectionⅤofthischaper.)(LeftenStavrosStavrianos.Theworldto1500:Aglobalhistory[M].Prentice-Hall,Inc,1970.)Songdynasty.(960–1279)Chinesedynastythatunitedtheentirecountryuntil1127andthesouthernportionuntil1279,duringwhichtimenorthernChinawascontrolledbytheJuchentribes.DuringtheSong,commerceflourished,papercurrencycameintoincreasinguse,andseveralcitiesboastedpopulationsexceedingonemillionpeople.WangAnshiworkedformoreequitabletaxationandstate-centredsolutionsforChina'sproblems.Widespreadprintingbroughtincreasedliteracyandabroaderelite,andprivateacademiesandstateschoolssentincreasingnumbersofcandidatesthroughtheChineseexaminationsystem.Inthe12thcentury,ZhuXisystemizedNeo-Confucianism.TheSongwasalsoaneraofscholarship:groundbreakingtreatisesonarchitectureandbotanywerepublished,aswasthefamoushistoryZizhitongjian("ComprehensiveMirrorforAidinGovernment")ofSimaGuang.LandscapepaintingissaidtohavereacheditspeakduringtheNorthernSong,whichwasalsofamousforitsmagnificentarchitecture.SeealsoTaizuChineseexaminationsystem.InChina,systemofcompetitiveexaminationsforrecruitingofficialsthatlinkedstateandsocietyanddominatededucationfromtheSongdynasty(960–1279)onward,thoughitsrootsdatetotheimperialuniversityestablishedintheHandynasty(206BC–AD220).CandidatesfacedfiercecompetitioninaseriesofexamsdealingprimarilywithConfuciantextsandconductedontheprefectural,provincial,andnationallevels.Despiteapersistenttendencytoemphasizerotelearningoveroriginalthinkingandformoversubstance,theexamsmanagedtoproduceanelitegroundedinacommonbodyofteachingsandtolendcredibilitytoclaimsofmeritocracy.Tooinflexibletobecapableofmodernization,thesystemwasfinallyabolishedin1905.Confucianism.ScholarlytraditionandwayoflifepropagatedbyConfuciusinthe6th–5thcenturyBCandfollowedbytheChineseformorethantwomillennia.Thoughnotorganizedasareligion,ithasdeeplyinfluencedEastAsianspiritualandpoliticallifeinacomparablemanner.Thecoreideaisren("humaneness,""benevolence"),signifyingexcellentcharacterinaccordwithli(ritualnorms),zhong(loyaltytoone'struenature),shu(reciprocity),andxiao(filialpiety).Togethertheseconstitutede(virtue).Mencius,Xunzi,andotherssustainedConfucianism,butitwasnotinfluentialuntilDongZhongshuemergedinthe2ndcenturyBC.ConfucianismwasthenrecognizedastheHanstatecult,andtheFiveClassicsbecamethecoreofeducation.InspiteoftheinfluenceofDaoismandBuddhism,ConfucianethicshavehadthestrongestinfluenceonthemoralfabricofChinesesociety.ArevivalofConfucianthoughtintheChengHaoandChengYi.(born1032,Henan,China-died1085,Henan)(born1033,Henan-died1107,Henan)BrotherswhodevelopedNeo-Confucianismintoanorganizedphilosophicalschool.ChengHaostudiedBuddhism,Daoism,andthenConfucianism.HewasdismissedfromChinesegovernmentserviceforopposingthereformsofWangAnshi,andhejoinedhisbrotherinHenan,wheretheygatheredacircleofdisciples.ChengYi'ssternmoralityledhimtodeclinehighofficeandcriticizethoseinpower.Hewastwicecensuredandpardoned.Thebrothersbuilttheirphilosophiesontheconceptofli(basictruths),butChengHaostressedcalmintrospectionwhileChengYistressedinvestigationofthemyriadthingsoftheuniverseandparticipationinhumanaffairs.ChengHao'sidealismwascontinuedbyLuXiangshanandWangYangming,andChengYi'srealismwasdevelopedbyZhuXi.ZhuXi(bornOct.18,1130,Yu-hsi,Fukienprovince,China-diedApril23,1200,China)ChinesephilosopherandproponentofNeo-Confucianism.Thesonofaminorgovernmentofficial,hewaseducatedintheConfuciantraditionandenteredgovernmentservice.Interestedinhistory,herevisedSimaGuang'sfamoushistorysothatitwouldillustratemoralprinciplesingovernment.In1189hebeganacommentaryontheDaxue;hecontinuedworkingontheDaxueallhislife.Philosophically,histhoughtincorporatedtheideasofChengHaoandChengYi,ZhouDunyi(1017-1073),andZhangZai,whoseworkshecompiled.HiscommentariesontheFourBooks,notablyontheLunyu(Analects)ofConfuciusandonMencius(both1177),wereenormouslyinfluential.Hisphilosophyemphasizedlogic,consistency,observanceofclassicalauthority,andthevalueofinquiry.LuXiangshan.(born1139,Kiangsi,China-diedJan.10,1193,China)ChineseNeo-ConfucianphilosopheroftheSouthernSongdynasty.Agovernmentofficialandateacher,hewastherivalofthegreatNeo-ConfucianrationalistZhuXi.Lutaughtthatthehighestknowledgeoftheway(dao)comesfromconstantinnerreflectionandself-examination.Inthisprocess,onedevelopsorrecoversthefundamentalgoodnessofone'snature.Lu'swritingswerepublishedafterhisdeath,andhisthoughtwasrevisedthreecenturieslaterbyWangYangming,whoestablishedtheXinxueschoolofNeo-Confucianism,oftencalledtheLu-Wangschool.(EncyclopediaconciseBritannica[M].Chicago,BritannicaEncyclopaedia,inc,2006.)宋代。十世纪后期，在结束了唐末的范镇割据之后，宋朝重新建立了中央集权统治。尽管他有幸存在了三个多世纪，但宋朝（公元960—1279年）并没有成为一个非常强大的国家。宋朝的统治者给与乐文人政治、手工业、教育和艺术更多的重视比军事事务。宋朝的第一个皇帝宋太祖（公元960—976年）首先开始实行这项政策。宋太祖以一个低级将领的身份开始了他的军事生涯，他在中国北部最强大的藩镇之一中任职。他有一个正直和办事效率高的美名，在公元960年，他的部下拥立他做了皇帝。在接下来的几年里，他和他的部下削弱了其它的一些割据政权，从而巩固了宋在中国大地上的统治。然后，他说服他的部将隐退后去过一种悠闲的生活，以至于他们不会试图取代它。同时，他着手组建了一个极权化的政府，把军队置于严密的监督之下。宋太祖把所有的国家官员甚至包括边远州县的小官吏都作为强权政府的仆人。为了让官员们保持忠诚，宋朝统治者给他们很高的俸禄。统治者通过创造机会让人们接受儒家教育，让他们参加科举考试，以此来扩充官僚队伍。与隋唐的统治者相比，宋统治者让更多的士人进入官僚机构。对于那些办事效率高的管员，统治者给与他们优厚的俸禄。并且还让文官来管理军事。宋代管理国家的方法带来了一个更加集权化的政府比以前的朝代。但它导致了两个严重的问题，他们削弱了宋朝并最终导致了它的灭亡。第一个问题是财政，庞大的官僚机构吞噬了中国过多的财富。随着官僚的数量和他们俸禄的增长，国家的财政面临着严重的压力。沉重的赋税加重了人民的负担，在十二世纪早期，农民发动了两次重大的起义。但是，在那个时代，文人控制着政府，需要指出的事，去改革这种体制几乎是不可能的。第二个问题是军事，文官一般没有受过军事教育，且缺少军事才能，但他们在战场上领兵并且做出军事决定。在宋代，中国北部边疆的游牧民族的壮大并不是一种单纯的巧合。从十世纪早期到十二世纪早期，来自满洲里的半游牧民族契丹人建立了一个强大的国家，并把帝国从朝鲜北部扩张到蒙古利亚。在宋代，契丹人索要和接收来自北宋的大量的丝绸和银币等贡物。在十二世纪的早期，游牧民族女真人征服了契丹，侵占了中国北部和宋的都城。之后南宋和金以长江和黄河为界直到1279年，这一年蒙古灭了南宋统一中国。理学。宋朝皇帝并没有迫害佛教徒，但他们积极支持中国本土文化，希望以此限制外来宗教对中国的影响。他们积极推崇儒家文化。例如，他们支持儒家学者的研究，并资助儒家作品的印刷与传播。在宋代，儒家传统不同于以前。最早的儒家学者集中于研究政治领域和道德领域的现实问题，因为他们把建立一个稳定的社会秩序作为自己关心的主要事情。宋代的儒学者研究儒家经典作品，但他们也精通佛教的著作。在佛教徒的思想中，他们发现了许多值得崇敬的东西。佛教不仅提供了逻辑思维和论辩的传统，而且也解决一些问题，如灵魂的本质，个人与宇宙的关系，这些都是儒家学者没有系统研究过的问题。因此，宋代的儒学者吸取了来自佛教的许多精髓。他们的思想不仅反映了佛教的影响也反映了早期儒学者的价值，因此被称为理学。宋代理学最重要的代表是朱熹（1130-1200）。作为一名多产的作家，朱熹对强调个人行为和社会和谐的儒家价值观做出了重大的贡献。他的作品中，有一个非常有影响的著作被命名为《家庭礼仪》，它主要描写了婚礼、丧葬、敬祖、祭祀等内容。作为一个杰出的儒学者，朱熹认为个人需要做的最重要的事是应在家庭和社会中发挥应有的作用。朱熹还致力于佛教思想中的哲学和思辨。他认为人们要遵守高尚的道德准则，并且也相信对于现实的事情而言，研究和调查是非常重要的。但他却把精力集中在抽象和深奥的理论问题上，而不是现实问题。他写了大量关于形而上的著作，如现实的本质。他推崇柏拉图式的论辩方式，那就是所有物质都有两种元素组成：“理”和“气”，这些类似柏拉图的形式与实质的原则，“理”是事物的本质，“气”是事物的形式。理学作为一重要的文化传承，主要有两个原因。首先，它说明了佛教在中国的深远影响。尽管理学反对把佛教作为一种信仰，但理学家的一些作品与佛教题材相符合，他们的理论符合儒家的利益观。第二，理学在相当长的一段时间内影响着东亚地区，在中国，从宋代到二十世纪前期，理学一直被作为正统思想，并且它影响韩国、越南、日本长达五百年以上，在这些国家，理学涉及哲学、政治和道德思想等多个领域。宋朝的黄金时代在对外关系上，宋代的皇帝与汉唐的统治者相比显然是相当被动的。他们并没有采取一些措施，在欧亚大陆的中心地带拓展国家的疆界。相反，宋代的第二代皇帝只是想收复燕京至长城间被游牧民族控制的疆土。但不幸的事，他被打败，并且他的子孙放弃了收回这一地区，甚至要给游牧民族一件不寻常“礼物”，实际上那是贡物。宋从未收复东北的疆土，也没有为收复西北的疆土提供陆上路线。宋有一个严重的弱点，使它无力应对游牧民族的袭击。岁币政策实行了一个半世纪，当宋朝的皇帝试图收复东北地区时，灾难就到来了。当执政的游牧民族在那一地区被来自满洲里的新的到来者打败时，宋朝的皇帝被鼓舞着去那样做。为了充分利用这个时机，宋朝的皇帝派他的军队进入满洲里。宋并没有获胜，相反，他们被打得一败涂地，致使华北地区遭到大量入侵。宋战败，他的疆土仅剩长江及其以南的地区。因此，宋代的后半期从1127年至1279年，它被称为南宋；宋代的前半期从960年至1127