语言输出理论课件

语言输出语言输出BackgroundImmersionprogramsinCanada

ConclusionOutputMerrillSwainTheOutputHypothesisThreefunctionsFuturedirectionsTheopinionofStephenKrashenandassessmentReferencescontentBackgroundcontentBackgroundIntheearlyandmid-1980s,therearetwoaspectsofthecontextthatareimportanttomention.Oneaspectofthecontextwasthedominanttheoreticalparadigmforsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)researchatthattime(1980s):

information-processingtheory.

The

secondwasthewidespreadgrowthofFrenchimmersionprogramsinCanada,theevaluationsofwhichwereshowingsomeratherunexpectedfindings.BACKBackgroundIntheearlyandmidImmersionprogramsinCanada

TheinitiationofFrenchimmersionprogramsinCanadainthelate1960sinfusedparentsandteacherswithrenewedenergyandexcitementabouttheteachingandlearningofFrenchasasecondlanguage(FSL).Intheseprograms,EnglishspeakingchildrenweretaughtsomeoralloftheircurriculuminFrenchbeginningwiththestartofschool(earlyimmersion),aroundgrade4or5(midimmersion),oraroundgrade6or7(lateimmersion).Evaluationafterevaluationwasconductedoftheseprograms加拿大沉浸计划BACKImmersionprogramsinCanadaTConclusionSwain(1995)在对加拿大的法语沉浸式教学进行调查时发现,课堂上教师讲多听少,学生听多讲少,大部分时间都用于做笔记。Swain认为出现这种现象的重要原因之一，在于学习者缺少语言输出机会，从事语言实践活动太少。基于这些观察，Swain得出如下结论：尽管“可理解性输入”对语言习得来说很重要，但不足以充分开发学习者的二语精炼能力。要想提高中介语的流利程度和准确性，学习者不仅需要“可理解性输入”，也需要“可理解性输出”。BACKConclusionSwain(1995)在对加拿大的法语沉

Differentinterpretationoftheword

“output”.

Inthe1980s,theword“output”wasusedtoindicatetheoutcome,orproduct,ofthelanguageacquisitiondevice.Outputwassynonymouswith“whatthelearnerhaslearned”.Therehasbeenashiftinmeaningfromthe80stonowfromoutputbeingunderstoodasanoun,athing,aproducttooutputbeingunderstoodasaverb,anaction,aprocess.BACKDifferentinterpretationoftMerrillSwain

Introduction:MerrillSwainisaProfessorintheCurriculum,TeachingandLearningDepartmentattheOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation(OISE)attheUniversityofToronto.Contribution:(1)Shedevelopedtheoutputhypothesis;(2)SheisalsoknownforherworkwithMichaelCanaleoncommunicativecompetence.BACKMerrillSwainIntroduction:BAC语言输出假说(TheOutputHypothesis)

针对Krashen提出的语言输入假设中的不足,二语习得研究者Swain在1985年提出了语言输出假设(theOutputHypothesis),她反对大量可理解性输入对语言习得所起的决定性作用。Swain认为,尽管理解输入语对二语学习很重要,但并不能保证学习者在语法准确性方面达到近似本族语者的水平。学习者只有通过使用所学语言才能达到这一点。Swain(1995)在对加拿大的法语沉浸式教学进行调查时发现,课堂上教师讲多听少,学生听多讲少,大部分时间都用于做笔记。BACK语言输出假说(TheOutputHypothesis)

Swain(1995)在其语言输出假设中阐述了输出对语言习得的作用:1.注意/触发功能(thenoticing/triggeringfunction);2.假设验证功能(thehypothesisfunction);3.元语言功能(themeta-linguisticfunction)。ThreefunctionsSwain(1995)在其语言输出假设中阐述了输出对语

First,outputhasanoticing/triggeringfunction.

Theclaimhereisthatwhileattemptingtoproducethetargetlanguage(vocallyorsilently(sub-vocally)),learnersmaynoticethattheydonotknowhowtosay(orwrite)preciselythemeaningtheywishtoconvey.Inotherwords,undersomecircumstances,theactivityofproducingthetargetlanguagemaypromptsecondlanguagelearnerstonoticeorrecognizeconsciouslysomeoftheirlinguisticproblems:itmaybringtheirattentiontosomethingtheyneedtodiscoverabouttheirsecondlanguage(possiblydirectingtheirattentiontorelevantinput).Thisawarenesstriggerscognitiveprocessesthathavebeenimplicatedinsecondlanguagelearning—onesinwhichlearnersgeneratelinguisticknowledgewhichisnewforthem,orwhichconsolidatetheircurrentexistingknowledge(Swain&Lapkin1995).Therehavebeenanumberofcarefullydesigned,experimentalstudieswhichhaveexaminedtheeffectofoutputonnoticingandacquisitionofparticulartargetforms,includingSwain’sresearchandhisstudentsresearch(e.g.,Izumi2002).

First,outputhasanoticingTheclaimhereisthatoutputmaysometimesbe,fromthelearnersperspective,a“trialrun”reflectingtheirhypothesisofhowtosay(orwrite)theirintent.Mackey’s(2002)studyhasanexcellentexampleofhypothesistestingfromalearner’sperspective.Thelearnerisreactingtoaninteractionepisodeinwhichshe,anotherlearnerandateacherareinvolved.Duringthisepisode,amongotherthings,thelearneristryingtofigureoutboththemeaningof“suite”andhowtosayit.Iflearnerswerenottestinghypotheses,thenchangesintheiroutputwouldnotbeexpectedfollowingfeedback.Second,theoutputhasahypothesistestingfunctionSecond,theoutputhasahypotTheclaimhereisthatusinglanguagetoreflectonlanguageproducedbyothersortheself,mediatessecondlanguagelearning.ThisideaoriginateswithVygotsky’ssocioculturaltheoryofmind.Socioculturaltheoryisaboutpeopleoperatingwithmediatingtools.Speakingisonesuchtool.Inthiscontext,Swainhasrelabeled“output”asspeaking,writing,collaborativedialogue,privatespeech,verbalizing,and/orlanguaginginordertoescapetheinhibitingeffectofthe“conduitmetaphor”impliedintheuseoftermssuchasinputandoutput.Thethird,themetalinguistic(reflective)functionofoutputBACKTheclaimhereisthatusingl

Severaldirectionscouldbetaken.

Experimentalstudieswithinaninformationprocessingframeworkwouldseemparticularlyfruitful.Investigationofthelevelsandtypesofprocessingthatout-put,underdifferentconditions,engendersseemstometobeaparticularlyinterestingroutetopursue.Withinasocioculturaltheoryofmindframework,ethnographicandcasestudyapproacheswouldseemtobemorevaluableatthispointintime,althoughthereiscertainlyaplaceforexperimentalwork.Particularlyusefultounderstandprocessesandstrategiesofsecondlanguagelearningwillbestudiesofthecollaborativedialogueandprivatespeechoflearnersastheyworktosolvelanguage-relatedproblemstheyfaceintheirlanguageproduction.Bystudyingthecollaborativedialogueandprivatespeechoflearners,accordingtoaVygotskiansocioculturaltheoryofmind,weareobservinglearninginprogress.Ofconsiderablesocioculturalinterestareotherbroaderquestionsaboutverbalizing,orasIamnowcallingit,“languaging”.Languagingistheuseoflanguagetoworkthroughcognitivelycomplexthoughts.

FuturedirectionsthatresearchabouttheOutputHypothesisBACKSeveraldirectionscouldbetTheopinionofStephenKrashenTheCOhypothesisislinkedtowhatissometimescalledthe“interactionhypothesis”,thehypothesisthatweacquirelanguagefrominteractingwithothers.Asstatedinthisway,theinteractionhypothesisisvague.Apartofinteractionthatdoesnotcontributetolanguage

acquisitionistheoutputproducedbythelanguageacquirer.

astrongversionoftheinteractionhypothesis,onethatassertsthat

interactionisnecessaryforlanguageacquisition,isnotcorrect.Suchahypothesis

ofacquisitioncanoccurfromreadingandlistening.Inadditiontothe

massivedatashowingthatreadingcanpromotelanguagedevelopment,Aweakerversionoftheinteractionhypothesisisthatinteractioncanbeagoodsourceofcomprehensibleinput.

TheCOhypothesisiscloselyrelatedtothe"needhypothesis".itiswidelyassumedtobetrue,buttheneedhypothesisisnotcorrect.TheopinionofStephenKrasheStephenKrashen对COhypothesis的看法T