欧洲地中海研究委员会-超越网络、民兵和部落：重新思考欧盟反走私政策和对策（英文）-2021.5-98正式版

PolicyStudy

N.19

APRIL2021

BEYONDNETWORKS,MILITIASANDTRIBES:RETHINKINGEUCOUNTER-SMUGGLINGPOLICYANDRESPONSE

GabriellaSanchez

Coordinator

KheiraArrouche

MatteoCapasso

AngelikiDimitriadi

AliaFakhry

©MartaSánchezDionis2020

PolicyStudy

N.19

APRIL2021

BEYONDNETWORKS,MILITIASANDTRIBES:RETHINKINGEUCOUNTER-SMUGGLINGPOLICYANDRESPONSE

GabriellaSanchez

Coordinator

KheiraArrouche

MatteoCapasso

AngelikiDimitriadi

AliaFakhry

EuroMeSCoisthemainnetworkofresearchcentresandthinktanksintheEuro-Mediterraneanarea.Foundedin1996,intheaftermathoftheBarcelonaDeclaration,thenetworkcurrentlycomprises104institutesfrom29EuropeanandSouthernMediterraneancountries.Inadditiontofosteringevidence-basedandpolicy-orientedanalysisonEuro-Mediterraneanpoliticsandpoliciesthroughjointresearchprogrammes,itsmissionistoboosttheroleofthinktanksandresearchinstitutesinpolicy-makingandstrengtheningEuro-MediterraneanrelationsbyprovidingaplatformfordialoguebetweenresearchersfrombothshoresoftheMediterranean,aswellasbetweenthemembersofthenetworkandkeystakeholders.

EuroMesCo:ConnectingtheDotsisaprojectco-fundedbytheEuropeanUnion(EU)andtheEuropeanInstituteoftheMediterranean(IEMed)thatisimplementedintheframeworkoftheEuroMeSConetwork.Itcontributestoinclusiveandevidence-basedpolicy-makingbyfosteringresearchandrecommendationsinrelationwiththeEuropeanNeighbourhoodPolicy(ENP)Southpriorities,withfocusoneconomicdevelopment,migrationandsecurity.Theprojectdevelopsawiderangeofresearch,dialogueanddisseminationactivities.

Aspartoftheproject,fiveJointStudyGroupsareassembledeachyeartocarryoutevidence-basedandpolicy-orientedresearch.Thetopicsofthestudygroupsaredefinedthroughaprocessofpolicyconsultationsdesignedtoidentifypolicy-relevantthemesrelatedtothethreeprioritiesoftheproject.EachstudygroupinvolvesaCoordinatorandateamofauthorswhoworktowardsthepublicationofaPolicyStudywhichisprinted,disseminatedthroughdifferentchannelsandevents,andaccompaniedbyaudio-visualmaterials.

POLICYSTUDY

PublishedbytheEuropeanInstituteoftheMediterranean

PeerReview

AcademicPeerReviewer:anonymous

PolicyPeerReviewer:WearegratefultotheHumanTraffickingandMigrantSmugglingSectionoftheUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime(UNODC)foritssubstantivesupporttothedevelopmentofthisPolicyStudy,throughthecontributionofMs.MorganeNicotasaPolicyPeerReviewer.

Editing

KarinaMelkonian

DesignlayoutMaurin.studio

ProofreadingNeilCharlton

LayoutNúriaEsparza

PrintISSN2462-4500

DigitalISSN2462-4519

April2021

ThispublicationhasbeenproducedwiththeassistanceoftheEuropeanUnion.ThecontentsofthispublicationarethesoleresponsibilityoftheauthorsandcaninnowaybetakentoreflecttheviewsoftheEuropeanUnionortheEuropeanInstituteoftheMediterranean.

TheEuropeanInstituteoftheMediterranean(IEMed),foundedin1989,isaconsortiumcomprisingtheCatalanGovernment,theSpanishMinistryofForeignAffairsandCooperationandBarcelonaCityCouncil.ItincorporatescivilsocietythroughitsBoardofTrusteesanditsAdvisoryCouncilformedbyMediterraneanuniversities,companies,organisationsandpersonalitiesofrenownedprestige.

InaccordancewiththeprinciplesoftheEuro-MediterraneanPartnershipProcess,andtodaywiththeobjectivesoftheUnionfortheMediterranean,theaimoftheIEMedistofosteractionsandprojectswhichcontributetomutualunderstanding,exchangeandcooperationbetweenthedifferentMediterraneancountries,societiesandculturesaswellastopromotetheprogressiveconstructionofaspaceofpeaceandstability,sharedprosperityanddialoguebetweenculturesandcivilisationsintheMediterranean.

AdoptingaclearroleasathinktankspecialisedinMediterraneanrelationsbasedonamultidisciplinaryandnetworkingapproach,theIEMedencouragesanalysis,understandingandcooperationthroughtheorganisationofseminars,researchprojects,debates,conferencesandpublications,inadditiontoabroadculturalprogramme.

ThemissionoftheMigrationPolicyCentre(MPC)attheEuropeanUniversityInstitute(EUI)istoconductadvancedresearchonthetransnationalgovernanceofinternationalmigration,asylumandmobility.Itprovidesnewideas,rigorousevidenceandcriticalthinkingtoinformmajorEuropeanandglobalpolicy.TheMPChasthreecoreaims:

AdvancingAcademicResearchandKnowledge:Itconductstheoreticalandempiricalresearchlinkingdifferenttypesofmigration,geographies,levelsofpolicy-makingandgovernance,andpolicyissues.

PolicyEngagementandDialogue:ItproactivelyengageswithusersofmigrationresearchtofosterdialogueinEuropeandgloballyaboutmigrationpolicyandgovernancewhilebuildinglinkswithotherkeyglobalchallengesandchanges.

Training:Itprovidesadvancedtrainingforresearchers,policyofficials,civilsocietyorganisationsandothersdealingwithmigrationissuesintheformofexecutivetrainingcoursesanditsrenownannualMigrationSummerSchool.

PolicyStudy

Content

ExecutiveSummary

8

Introduction

12

RevisitingtheCounter-SmugglingApproach

14

GabriellaSanchez

CounteringSmugglingofMigrantsthroughSocial

MediaMonitoring:LookingforaNeedleinaDigital

Haystack

34

AngelikiDimitriadi

HidinginPlainSight:InvestigatingtheBlindSpots

ofCounter-SmugglingEffortsinNiger

52

AliaFakhry

CurrentTrendsandChallengesontheFacilitationof

IrregularMigrationinTunisia,AlgeriaandMorocco

76

GabriellaSanchez,KheiraArrouche,MatteoCapasso

Listofacronymsandabbreviations

96

ExecutiveSummary

Counteringmigrantsmugglinganditsactors–describedasthemenbehindthefacilitationofmigrants’irregularjourneys–areimportantelementsoftheEuropeanUnion(EU)’smigrationandbordercontrolpolicy.UnderthenewPactonMigrationandAsylum,theEUhasproposedtopromotetailor-madeandmutuallybeneficialpartnershipswiththirdcountriesspecificallytoaddressmigrantsmuggling.EUHomeAffairsCommissionerYlvaJohanssonhasalsopromisedapredictableandreliablemigrationmanagementsystemthatincludes“steppingupthefightagainsthumantraffickersandsmugglers”.

TheEUhascertainlytakenimportantstepstocounterirregularmigration,includingmakingconsiderablefinancialcommitmentstothefightagainstsmugglersandtheirnetworks,towhomthejourneysofirregularmigrantsintoEuropearealmostsingle-handedlyattributed.Smugglers,characterisedasinherentlyviolentandexploitative,arealsodescribedasrelyingonaspecificbusinessmodelthatgeneratesincalculableearnings.Muchhasbeenwrittenabouthowtheseprofits,ifunmonitored,canbefunnelledbysmugglersintoothercriminalenterpriseslikedrugtraffickingorweaponssmuggling,butalsointothemorenefariouspracticesofsextraffickingorterrorism.

Withinthiscontext,smugglersarealsosaidtoexploitanever-growingnumberofnaïveanddesperatevictims,primarilyyoungmenfromsub-SaharanAfricawho,drivensolelybythepowerofsocialmediaandtheiconographyportrayingEuropeansoilasadreameddestination,donotthinktwiceaboutembarkingondangerousjourneysacrossvastdesertsandseas.Athighlevelpolicyeventsandacademicexchanges,participantsoftenciteexamplesofyoungmenwho,trickedbyFacebookandInstagramposts,arriveinEuropeafterenduringharrowingexperiencesonlytofindthemselvesinevenmoredesperatesituationsofhomelessnessanddeprivation,havingbelievedtheliesandfalsepromisesofsmugglers,friendsandfamilymemberspostedonline.Migrantwomen,ontheotherhand,tendtobedescribedasyoungsexslavesorprostitutes,victimsofthedepravityofsexually-predatorysmugglerswhodonothesitatetoexploitthemforprofitincitiesacrossNorthAfricaandEurope.

Migrantsdofaceviolenceandintimidationatthehandsofsmugglers.TheseexperienceshavebeendocumentedatlengthinavastnumberofreportstargetingEuropeanaudiences.Kidnapping,extortion,andphysicalandsexualassaultareundeniableandtroublingrealitiesonthemigrationpathway,andmigrantsdoexperiencethemoftenatthehandsofsmugglers.Women,girls,andlesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,intersexandquestioningmigrantsarealsomorevulnerabletospecificformsofsexualandgender-basedviolence(SGBV),whichareoftencompoundedbyracismandotherformsofdiscrimination–thisdoesnotprecludethefactthatSGBVagainstmigrantmenisalsocommononthemigranttrail.

PolicyStudyn.19

Thispolicystudy,developedbyateamofmigrationscholarsbasedinEUresearchinstitutions,arguesthatwhilethesegeneralnotionshaveguidedthemainstream,collectiveunderstandingofmigrantsmuggling,theydoinfactposeseveralandseriouslimitationsthat,ifnotconsideredclosely,canleadtofaultyconclusionsandinadequatepolicyresponses.Echoingotherstudies,thisreportshowsthatirregularmigrationandcounter-smugglingpolicyareoftenbasedonlimitedempiricaldata,drawnfromsimilarifnotidenticalstakeholders,anddevelopedbyareducedandidentifiablecoreofresearchers(mostofthem,Europeanand/orEurope-based).Whilethisbodyofworkhastoalargeextentexpandedtheunderstandingofsmuggling,ithassimultaneouslyprivilegedEuro-centricperspectivesandlawenforcementprioritiesattheexpenseofsilencingtheexperiences(otherthanthoseinvolvingvictimisationandabuse)oftheverypeoplewhorelyonsmugglersfortheirjourneys.Chapteroneexamineshowresearchhasshownthatwhileinmostlawenforcement,policyandacademiccirclesthefacilitationofirregularmigrationforprofitisarticulatedasacrime,formostmigrantsthepeoplebehindtheirjourneysmerelyfacilitateaserviceofmobility,whichmaybeinsomeinstancesillicitbutnotcriminal,rootedinthelackofaccessible,affordable,legalandsafepathsformigration.Theseactors,commonlydepictedinacademicpublicationsandresearchreportsasheinouslyviolentandpredatorymembersoftribesorotherethnicandracialisedgroups,arequiteoftenvaluedandwell-respectedpeopleincommunitiesacrossNorthAfricaandtheSahel,trustedfortheefficiencyoftheirmobility,tradeandtransportationservices.Knownordepictedassmugglersinpolicyreports,thesefacilitatorsarequiteoftenordinarymenandwomen,recognisedfortheircontributionstothelocaleconomy,includingtheprovisionofmobilitysolutionsforyoungandadultmigrantsunabletosecuretheprotectionsaffordedbypassportsorvisas.

Thestudyalsoshowcaseshow,contrarytosmuggling’sdepictionasadomainofadultmenorganisedintocriminalnetworks,thefacilitationofirregularmigrationoftentakesplaceasacommunity-basedenterprise,wherelocalgroups–oftencomprisingextendedfamilies,women,childrenandelderlypeople–playcriticalrolesinthefacilitationofmigrants’journeys,sharingandreincorporatingprofitstothelocaleconomy.Asshownthroughoutthisstudy,theprovisionofsmugglingservicesisanimportantsourceofincomeforwomen,whoareoftenengagedintheprovisionofroomandboard,thecareforinjuredorhurtmigrants,runningflatswithinghettos,andinsomeinstancestransportingmigrantsacrossborders.Thestudyshowsthatwhenseenfromalocal,micro-levelperspective,theprovisionofsmugglingservicesisperceivedasaviablesourceofincome,especiallyamongmarginalisedgroups–tribalcommunitiesinremoteregions,women,migrantsintransitand/orstranded,migrantchildrenandyouthstravellingunaccompanied.Simultaneously,examplesfromAlgeria,Morocco,TunisiaandNigerincludedinthisstudyhighlighttheimpactofattemptstocountertheactivitiesofsmugglers,notonlyonthosewhodirectlyorindirectlybenefitfinanciallyfrommigrants’journeys,butonmigrantsthemselves.

EffortstocountersmugglingbyboththeEUandthirdcountries–forexample,themonitoringofsocialmediapagesbyEUlawenforcementbodies,the

10 BeyondNetworks,MilitiasandTribes:RethinkingEUCounter-SmugglingPolicyandResponse

introductionofamigrantsmugglingstatuteinnationalcriminallawasinthecaseofNiger,orthedesignationofirregulardeparturesinTunisia,AlgeriaandMoroccoascriminal–oftenhaveeitherineffectiveorcounterproductiveeffects.Chaptertwoshowcaseshowsocialmediadata-miningeffortsbyEUlawenforcementappeartohavescantimpactontheoperationofmigrantsmugglinggroupsyetraiseconcernsoverinstitutionaltransparencyandmigrants’righttoprivacy.InthecaseofNiger,chapterthreeshowshowtheintroductionofthecounter-smugglingstatutepushedthelong-standinglocaleconomyofmobilityandtradeunderground,deprivingofincomesourcesnotonlythosedirectlyinvolvedinthefacilitationofmigrants’journeysbutthosewhobenefitedfromthepresenceofpeopleintransit–particularlywomen,childrenandyouthswhogeneratedanincomefromthesaleoffood,equipmentoraccommodation,andwhosepresenceisoftendisregardedinsmugglinganalysesandpolicyrecommendations.ChapterfourshowcaseshowacrossTunisia,AlgeriaandMorocco,apprehensionandconvictionforirregulardeparture–oftenpunishedthroughheftyfines–furthercompoundthedebtandprecarityofyoungmenandtheirfamilies,andreinforcethedesireorneedtomigrate,oftenwithdevastatingconsequences.Chapterfouralsoprovidesimportantevidencethat,inthesethreecountries,groupsoffriendsandfamilymembers–ratherthansmugglinggroups–arebehindtheorganisationoftheirownirregularjourneys,pullingtogethertheirownresourcesandknowledge.

Recommendations

TheEU’sstatedcommitmenttocounterthenegativeimpactsofmigrantsmugglingactivitiesconstitutesanopportunitytorethinkthetraditionalapproachestosmuggling,andtore-energiseabodyofresearchthathasbeenvastlydominatedbyEuro-centricperspectivesandfoci.

Improvedknowledgeandunderstandingofsmugglingcanonlycomefromradicalchangestothewayresearchiscreatedanddataanalysed.Thisinvolvesexpandingthewebofinformantsandstakeholdersbutalsodiversifyingthebodyofresearchersandresearchentitiestraditionallytaskedwithconductingsmugglingresearch.Effortstoincorporatejunior,female,GlobalSouthresearchersandconsultantsandtoexpandperspectivesthroughtherecruitmentofawidernetofinformantsthroughalternativeandinnovativeresearchmethodsareurgentlyneeded.

Mostanalysesonsmugglingandcounter-smugglingpolicyeffortsaredevoidofreferencestothewayrace,classandgendershapetheexperiencesofbothmigrantsandthosewhofacilitatetheirjourneys.Tothisonemustaddthesystematicracismanddiscriminationsub-Saharanandotherracialisedmigrantsfaceandwhichshapetheirinteractionswithmigrationauthoritiesandtheiroverallexperiencesofmigration.Furthermore,theexperiencesofwomen(bothasmigrantsandasfacilitatorsoftheirjourneys)continuetobeunderexplored.Policyresponsesmusttakeintoconsiderationhowmigrantsandthosebehindtheirjourneysexperienceenforcementandcontrols.

PolicyStudyn.19

BeyondNetworks,MilitiasandTribes:RethinkingEUCounter-SmugglingPolicyandResponse

11

EffortstoaccessdatarevealedadeeplyentrenchedcultureofsecrecyinEUenforcementbodiesdedicatedtocounter-smugglingwork.Interviewswereoftendenied,requestsforaccesswentunanswereddespitemultipleofficialrequests,andaccesstodatawasoftenlimited.Mechanismsthatallowrapidandtransparentaccesstodatainafashionthatdoesnotcompromisethenatureofinvestigationsarekeytoimprovingsmugglingandcounter-smugglinganalysisandpolicydevelopment.Thecreationofanopenaccessdatabaseincludinginformationconcerningsmugglinginvestigationsandcaselawwouldbeawelcomesteptowardstransparency.

Alongtheselines,itiscriticaltoensurethatanycounter-smugglingeffortrelyingonsocialmediadata-miningisinlinewithEuropeanlawandthatitprotectstheruleoflawandhumanrightsofmigrantsandasylumseekers.

IftheEUisindeedcommittedtodismantlingexploitativesmugglingoperationsandtheiractors,equalaccesstosafe,legalandorderlypathstomigrationinlinewiththeMigrationCompactmustbeimplemented.Thedemandforsmugglingservicesdoesnotemergeinavacuum.Instead,itisrootedinthelackofaccesstomechanismsallowingforsafetransit.

Introduction

GabriellaSanchez

ResearchFellowandLeadofMigrantSmugglingResearch,MigrationPolicyCentre(MPC)attheEuropeanUniversityInstitute(EUI)

BeyondNetworks,MilitiasandTribes:RethinkingEUCounter-SmugglingPolicyandResponse

13

AmidtheendofOperationSophia,ThepolicystudyexaminesEUcounter-theannouncementofanewmigra-smugglingprogrammesandstrate-tionpackagetogetherwithanewSe-gies,documentingandimprovingthecurityUnionStrategy,andthereleaseunderstandingoftheirimpactsnotoftheRoadmaptotheEuropeanonlyinNorthAfricaandtheSahel,butUnion(EU)ActionPlanagainstmi-inEUpolicyandlawenforcementcir-grantsmuggling(2021-2025)–allincles.Relyingonfield-basedresearchthecontextoftheCOVID-19pande-andotherempiricalsources,italsomic–thereismomentumtoreflectprovidesevidence-basedunderstan-criticallyontheactionsandinstru-dingsofthedynamicspresentinthefa-mentstheEUhasdeployedtocoun-cilitationofirregularmigrationtermigrantsmugglinginthe(includingthoseshapedorimpactedMediterraneanandbeyond,andtobytheCOVID-19emergency)andtheproposewhatshouldbedonediffe-currentchallengesfacedbymigrantsinrentlyundertheforthcomingterm.transitandinneed.

Thisisthegoalofthispolicystudy.ItThestudyisdividedintofourchapters.acknowledgesthatEU’scounter-smug-Chapteroneidentifiespolicy-makers’glingstrategyhasbeenanessentialunderstandingofmigrantsmugglingcomponentofEUmigrationmanage-anditsimplicationsinlightoftheforth-mentdiscourse,policyandresponse,comingEUmigrationpackage.Chap-oftenbeingshowcasedasasignoftertwoexaminestheuseofsocialthestrongcollaborativetiesbetweenmediabylawenforcementincounter-theEUandcountriesinNorthAfricasmugglingoperationsanditsethicalandtheSahel.Italsoidentifiesase-implications.Chapterthreeidentifiesriesofchallenges.Thecounter-smug-theimpactsofcounter-smugglingacti-glingstrategy’sstrongfocusonthevitiesinNiger,andthewaystheyhaveLibyancasehasleftsmugglingdyna-impactedthelivesofmigranttranspor-micsinotherregionsvirtuallyunexa-tersandothermerchants–inparticu-mined.Thelackofinputsfromthirdlar,women–whobenefitedfromthecountries;thecriminalisationunderpresenceofmigrants.Thefourthandthemigrantsmugglingrubricoflong-closingchapterexamineshowirregularstandingtransportationandtradedeparturesfromTunisia,Algeriaandpractices–intheprocessdisturbingMoroccohavebeenorganisedoverlocal,tribaleconomies–thereliancethelastyearinspiteofthepandemic,onmigrantreturns,incarcerationandandtheimplicationsofthefacilitationdetentionpractices,combinedwithofirregularmigrationformigrants.thehighdeathrateintheMediterra-Furthermore,thestudyprovidesase-nean,allhaveraisedquestionsoverriesofrecommendationsrelatedtore-thestrategy’seffectiveness.Further-searchdevelopment,theurgentneedmore,thefocusondismantlingsmug-todiversifythemakeupofmigrationglingoperationshasalsobeenresearchersandtheirinformants,thecriticisedforthewayitdeflectsatten-concerningveilofsecrecyovercounter-tionfromthereasonatthecoreofthesmugglingactivities,andthedemanddemandforsmugglingservices–theforresponsesthataddressthereasonatreducedavailabilityofsafe,orderlythecoreforthedemandofsmugglingandregularpathsformigrationasservices:thelackofequallyaccessible,outlinedintheGlobalCompactforMi-safe,legalandorderlychannelsformi-gration.gration.

PolicyStudyn.19

Revisiting

theCounter-Smuggling

Approach

GabriellaSanchez

ResearchFellowandLeadofMigrantSmugglingResearch,MigrationPolicyCentre(MPC)attheEuropeanUniversityInstitute(EUI)

BeyondNetworks,MilitiasandTribes:RethinkingEUCounter-SmugglingPolicyandResponse

15

Introduction

ThischapterexamineshowEuropeanUnion(EU)policy-makersengagewiththeconceptofmigrantsmugglingandhowthisinturnshapespolicyconversa-tionsanddecision-making.Itidentifiesfourspecificelementsornotionswhichareoftenmobilisedtospeakaboutandframemigrantsmugglingincounter-smugglingpolicy:theconceptofnet-work,thegenderingofthesmugglerasmale,thesmugglingbusinessmodelandtheprivilegingoflawenforcementperspectives.Theseelements,despitebeingcitedconstantly,havescantevi-dencesupportingthem.Theiruseinthesecurityandmigrationdiscoursereflectssignificantinconsistenciesinknowledgeanddata,andseriouscognitivebiases.Policy–oftentryingtoreconcileEUperspectiveswith“nationallevel”prio-ritiesandtheirspecificcontexts–isthe-reforelikelytoarticulateorproposeresponsestocountermigrantsmugglingthatarenotinlinewiththeconditionsontheground,furthermuddlinganal-readycomplexconceptualandpolicyfield.Thechapterendswithaseriesofrecommendationsonhowtoaddressthesegapsandtostrengthenthecrea-tionofevidence-basedknowledgeandpolicyconcerningmigrantsmuggling.

Whatdowetalkaboutwhenwetalkaboutmigrantsmuggling?

Migrantsmugglinginvolvesthefacilita-tionforprofitoftheentryofaperson

intoacountryotherthanhisorherownwithoutauthorisation.Inthecontextoftheso-calledEuropeanrefugeecrisisof2015andgiventhelargenumberofarri-valstotheEUofpeopleseekingprotec-tion,migrantsmuggling–atopicextensivelyexploredintheearly2000sbycriminologyscholars,particularlyinthecaseofirregularjourneysboundforItaly–acquiredrenewedrelevance,andpolicy-makerssignalledtheirinterestinunderstandingitsactorsanddynamics.Thistranslatedintotheproductionofalargebodyofpublicationsconcerningmigrantsmuggling,nottomentionintofundingbytheEUofavastnumberofinitiativesinthirdcountriestocounterirregularmigrationbytacklingsmug-gling.Thirdcountriesthemselves,inanattempttobeperceivedassupportiveEUpartners,butalsotoadvancetheirownmigrationandborderenforcementpolicy(seeSanchezetal.,thisreport),havealsobecomeheavilyengagedinactivitiesthataimtodismantletheso-called“businessmodel”ofmigrantsmuggling.Thishastypicallyinvolvedadoptingborderandimmigrationcon-trolinitiativestocountertheoperationsofsmugglersthroughthecontainmentofirregularmigration,mostnotablyacrossNorthAfricaandtheSahel.

WhilereferencestomigrantsmugglingarecommonplaceinEUmigration-rela-tedpolicyinitiativesandcommunica-tions(Fakhry,thisreport),thereisstillaquitelimitedunderstandingofwhatthepracticeactuallyentails.Policy-makersacrossEUentitiesstillstrugglewithitsbasicdefinitionandoftenconflateitwithhumantrafficking.1Alongtheselines,

Humantraffickingisanactinvolvingtherecruitment,transportation,transfer,harbouringorreceiptofpersonsthroughthethreatoruseofforce,coercion,abduction,fraud,deception,abuseofpowerorvulnerability,orgivingpaymentsorbenefitstoapersonincontrolofavictim.Itiscarriedoutforthepurposeofexploitation,whichincludessexualexploitation,forcedlabour,slaveryorsimilarpracticesandtheremovaloforgans.Retrievedfrom/en/professionalinterest/pages/protocoltraffickinginpersons.aspx

PolicyStudyn.19

16 BeyondNetworks,MilitiasandTribes:RethinkingEUCounter-SmugglingPolicyandResponse

itisnotunusualtofindcommunications basisofquitespecificcontextsor

thatrefertosmugglersastraffickersand dynamics–aspecificityoftendriven

vice-versa,addingtotheconceptual bygeopoliticalpriorities.Inother

clutter.2Itisalsocommontocome words,despiteoftenrecognisingthe

acrossreferencestocasesinwhich needforcontextualanalysisandtai-

searchandrescueeffortscarriedout loredrecommendationsthatunearth

bycivilsocietyandindividualshave oridentifyuniquecircumstances,po-

beendesignatedassmugglingin licy-makerssimultaneouslycallfor

courtsoflaw,inafashionthatcontra- country-wideapproachestosmug-

dictsthespiritoftheUnitedNations glingthatcanbeimplementedor

OfficeonDrugsandCrime(UNODC) even replicated across countries

ProtocolagainsttheSmugglingofMi- (Fakhry,thisreport).Thisresultsin

grants,whichcallsforthenon-crimi- specificcontextsorexperiencesbeing

nalisationofhumanitarianassistance usedtoexplainoraddressothers,des-

(UNODC,2000;Carreraetal.,2018). pitetheirpotentialfordetrimental,

damagingeffects.

Itistruethatinpracticethedifferencebetweenmigrantsmugglingandhumantraffickingishardtodraw(GAATW,2011;Azizetal.,2015).Manymigrantswhoconsensuallyenterintoamigrantsmugglingagreementmaysuddenlyfindthemselvesundercoercion,facingconditionsofforcedmanualorevense-xuallabour,orotherformsofabuse.Manytraffickingvictimsmayalsobeabletonegotiatearrangementswithsmugglersforthepurposeofadvancingtheirjourneys(Kook,2018).However,re-ferencestosmugglingandtrafficking,ratherthanshowcasingthesenuances,oftensuggestanabsenceofconceptualandempiricalclarity.Thechallengethe-reforebecomesoneofdecidinghowtopreventtheselimitationsfromconti-nuingtotrickledownintopolicydeve-lopment,leadingtothearticulationorimplementationofsolutionsthatdonotmatchthephenomenonorthedynamicsontheground.

Thereisalsoatendencytounderstandorframemigrantsmugglingonthe

ThisformofengagingwithsmugglingdynamicsisperhapsbestexemplifiedinthecaseofLibya.FollowingthespikeinEUarrivalsof2015,Libyabe-cametheparadigmaticcaseofsmug-