英语词汇学总结复习资料

大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。第一章BasicConceptsofWordsandVocabulary词的定义Word Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.声音及意义的关系Thereisnologicalrelationshipbetweensoundandmeaningasthesymbolicconnectionbetweenthemisarbitraryandconventional.E.g.“woman”means'Frau'inGerman，'Femme'inFrenchand'Funv'inChinese.Ontheotherhand，thesamesound/rait/canmeanright，riteandwrite，thoughdenotingdifferentthings，yethavethesamesound.读音及拼写不一致的原因Thedifferencebetweensoundandformresultfrom4majorfactors.(Atleast80%oftheEnglishwordsfitconsistentspellingpatterns).theinternalreasonisEnglishalphabetdoesnothaveaseparatelettertorepresenteachsoundinthelanguage..Pronunciationhaschangedmorerapidlythanspelling.Influenceoftheworkofscribes/printingfreezesthespellingofwordsin1500.Borrowingofforeignlanguage词汇的含义VocabularyVocabularyismostcommonlyusedtorefertothesumtotalofallthewordsofalanguage.Itcanalsorefertoallthewordsofagivendialect，agivenbook，agivendisplineandallthewordspossessedbyanindividualpersonaswellasallthewordscurrentinaparticularperiodoftimeinhistory.ThegeneralestimateofthepresentdayEnglishvocabularyisover1millionwords.词汇的分类的原则ClassificationofWords—byusefrequency，bynotion,byorigintheEnglishvocabularyconsistofwordsofallkinds.theycanbeclassifiedbydifferentcriteriaandfordifferentpurpose.wordsmayfallintothewordstockandnonbasicvocabularybyusefrequency,intocontentwordsandfunctionalwordsbynotion,andintonativewordsandborrowedwordsbyorigin.基本词汇的特点.Basicwordstock-thefoundationofthevocabulary.allnationalcharacter(mostimportant)-naturalphenomenamostcommonthingsandphenomenaofthehumanbodyandrelationsworldaroundusnamesofplantsandanimalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep.，conj.stability-theydonatethecommonestthingnecessarytolife，theyareliketoremainunchanged.Onlyrelative，someareundergoingsomechanges.Butthechangeisslow.e.g.arrow,bow,chariot,knight-past electricity,machine，car，plane——nowproductivity-theyaremostlyrootwordsormonosyllabicwords,theycanformnewwordswithotherrootsandaffixes.e.g.foot-football,footage,footpath,footerpolysemy-oftenpossessmorethanonemeaning.Becomepolysemous.e.g.taketomoveorcarryfromoneplacetoanothertoremovecollocability-quiteanumberofsetexpressions,idiomaticusages，proverbialsayingandothers基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性Thebasicwordstockisthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage.thoughwordsofthebasicwordstockconstituteasmallpercentageoftheEnglishvocabulary,yetitisthemostimportantpartofit.e.g.heart-achangeofheart,aheartofgoldNon-basicvocabulary （例子）terminology-technicaltermsusedinparticulardisciplinesandacademicareasasinmedicinephotoscanning,hepatitis,indigestion,penicillin,algebra,trigonometry,calculusjargon-specializedvocabularyincertainprofessions.Bottomline,ballparkfigures,bargainingchips,holdhimback,holdhimin,paranoidslang——substandardwordsoftenusedininformaloccasionsdoughandbread，grassandpot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certainwordsarelabeledslangbecauseoftheirusage.argot-wordsusedbysub-culturedgroupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon，argotareassociatedwith，ormostavailableto，specificgroupsofthepopulation.dialectalwords-onlybyspeakersofthedialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bogarchaisms-wordsnolongerincommonuseorrestrietedinuse.Inolderpoems，legaldocumentandreligiouswritingorspeech.neologism-newlycreatedwordswithnewmeaninge.g.microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailoldmeaningacquirednewmeaninge.g.mouse，monitor.Contentword(notionalword)-denoteclearnotions.Functionalword(emptyword,formword)-donothavenotionsoftheirown，expresstherelationbetweennotions，wordsandsentences.ContentwordsconstitutethemainbodyoftheEnglishvocabularyarenumerous.Functionalwordsareinasmallnumber.Contentwordsaregrowing.Functionalwordsremainstable.Functionalwordsdofarmoreworkofexpressionthancontentwords..Nativewords-arewordsbroughttoBritaininthe15centurybytheGermantribes.Ango-SaxonWords，50，000-60，000Whatistrueofthebasicwordstockisalsotrueofnativeworld.Moreareneutralinstyle(notstylisticalspecific)2.frequentinuse(inacademicfieldsandscienceFrench，LatinorGreekareused)(usage70-90%)Borrowedwords(loanwords,borrowing)-wordstakenoverfromforeignlanguage.80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Nativewordsformthemainstreamofthebasicwordstockandstandatthecoreofthelanguage.therefore,whatistrueofthebasicwordstockisalsotrueofnativewords.Accordingtothedegreeofassimilationandmannerofborrowing，wecanbringtheloanwordsunder4classes.Denizens-wordsborrowedearlyandnowarewellassimilatedintoEnglishlanguage.e.g.portfromportus(L)shift，change，shirt，porkcupfromcuppa(L)Aliens-retainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspellinge.g.decor(F)blitzkreeg(G)emir,intermez,rowtow,bazaar，rajar，statusquotranslationloans-formedfromtheexistingmaterialintheEnglishlanguagebutmodeledonthepatternstakenfromanotherlanguage..Wordtranslatedaccordingtothemeaninge.g.mothertoughfromlinguamaternal(L)blackhumorfromhumornoirlongtimenosee,surplusvalue,masterpiece2）.Wordstranslatedaccordingtothesounde.g.kulakfromkyrak（Russ） lamafromlama（Tib）ketchupteaSemanticloans-theirmeaningareborrowedfromanotherlanguagee.g.stupidolddumpnewsassydreamoldjoyandpeacepioneeroldexplorer/persondoingpioneeringworknewamemberoftheyoungpioneerfresholdimpertinent，sassy，cheeky第二章TheDevelopmentoftheEnglish1、Indo-Europeanlanguagefamily（Europe，theNearEast，India）ItcanbegroupedintoanEasternset:Balto-Slavic、Indo-Iranian、ArmenianandAlbanian;aWesternset:Celtic、Italic、Hellenic、GermanicIntheEasternset,ArmenianandAlbanianareeachtheonlymodernlanguagerespectively,theBalto-SlaviccomprisessuchmodernlanguagesuchasPrussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian.IntheIndo-IranianwehavePersian,Bengali,Hindi,Romany,thelastthreeofwhicharederivedfromthedeadlanguageSanskrit.IntheWesternset,GreekisthemodernlanguagederivedfromHellenic.IntheCeltic,wefindScottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton.thefiveRomancelanguage,namely,Portuguese,Spanish,French,Italian,RoumanianallbelongtotheItalicthroughanintermediatelanguagecalledLatin.TheGermanicfamilyconsistofthefourNorthernEuropeanlanguage:Norwegian,Icelandic,DanishandSwedish,whicharegenerallyknownasScandinavianlanguages.ThenthereisGerman,Dutch,FlemishandEnglish.2、History（时间，历史事件，特征）1）OldEnglish（450-1150）totally50，000-60，000wordsThe1stpeopleknowntoinhabitEnglandwereCelts，thelanguagewasCeltic.ThesecondlanguagewastheLatinoftheRomanLegions. TheGermanictribescalledangles，SaxonsandJutesandtheirlanguage，Anglo-SaxondominatedandblottedouttheCeltic.NowpeoplerefertoAnglo-SaxonasoldEnglish.Attheendof6thcentury，theintroductionofChristianityhasagreatimpactontheEnglishvocabulary.Thecommonpracticewastocreatenewwordsbycombiningtwonativewords.Inthe9thcentury，manyScandinavianwordscameintoEnglish.Atleast900wordsofScandinavianareinmodernEnglish，ourdailylifeandspeech.特点：highlyinflectedlanguage///complexendingsorvowelchanges(fullending)2)MiddleEnglish(1150-1500)English，Latin，FrenchUntil1066，althoughtherewereborrowingsfromLatin，theinfluenceonEnglishwasmainlyGermanic.ButtheNormanConqueststartedacontinualflowofFrenchwordsintoEnglish.Bytheendofthe13thcentury，Englishgraduallycomebackintopublicareas.Between1250and150about9000wordsofFrenchoriginpoueredintoEnglish.75%ofthemaretillinusetoday.Asmanyas2500wordsofDutchorigincomeintoEnglish.特点：fewerinflectionsleveledendingModernEnglish(1500-uptonow)earlymodernEnglish(1500-1700)latemodernEnglish(1700-uptonow)TheRenaissance(theearlyperiod)，LatinandGreekwererecognizedasthelanguagesoftheWesternworld'sgreatliteraryheritage.Fromthe1500'sthroughthe1700's,manywritersexperimentedwithwords.Over10000newwordsenteredtheEnglishlanguage.manyoftheseweretakenfromLatinandGreek.TheIndustrialRevolutionwasinthemid-17century.Withthegrowthofcolonization，Britishtentaclesbeganastretchingoutoftoeverycorneroftheglobe，thusenablingEnglishtoabsorbwordsfromallmajorlanguagesoftheworld.AfterWorldWarII，manynewwordshavebeencreatedtoexpressnewideas，inventionsandscientificachievements.Morewordsarecreatedbymeansofword-formation.thousandsandthousandsofnewwordshavebeenenteredtoexpressnewideasinventions，andscientificachievements.morewordsarecreatedbymeansofword-formation.inmodernEnglish，wordendingsweremostlylostwithjustafewexceptionsEnglishhasevolvedfromasyntheticlanguagetothepresentanalyticlanguage.scienceandtechnologytermsmakeupabout45%ofnewwords.wordsassociatedwithlife-styleconstituteof24%andsocialandeconomictermsamounttoover10%.mentionshouldbemadeofanoppositeprocessofdevelopmenti.e.oldwordsfallingoutifuse.特点：endingarealmostlost.Threemainsourcesnewwords当代英语词汇发展的现状Newwordssweepinataratemuchfasterthanatanyotherhistoricalperiodoftime.词汇发展的主要原因1).Therapiddevelopmentofmodernscienceandtechnology2).Social:economicandpoliticalchanges3).TheinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguagesThreemodesofvocabularydevelopment(英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词)Creation-theformationofnewwordsbyusingtheexistingmaterials，namelyroots，affixesandotherelements.(Thisisthemostimportantwayofvocabularyexpansion.)Semanticchange-anoldformwhichtakeonanewmeaningtomeetthenewneed.Borrowing-totakeinwordsfromotherlanguages.(playedavitalroleinthedevelopmentofvocabulary,particularlyinearliertimes)(Revivingarchaicorobsolete)French30%，Latin8%，JapaneseItalian7%，Spanish6%，GermanGreek5%，RussianYiddish4%第三章WordFormation*1.Morpheme(词素) Amorphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitofalanguage.(Thesmallestfunctionalunitinthecompositionofwords.)*2.Morph——Amorphememustberealizedbydiscreteunits.Theseactualspokenminimalcarriersofmeaningaremorphs.Monomorphenicwords-morphemesarerealizedbysinglemorphs.Allomorph(词素变体)Somemorphemesarerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirposition.Suchalternativemorphsareallomorphemes.E.g.themorphemeofplurality(-s)hasanumberifallomorphemesindifferentsoundcontext，e.g.incats/s/，inbags/z/，inmatches/iz/.FreemorphemesorFreeroot——Themorphemeshavecompletemeaningandvanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences，e.g.cat，walk.Theyareidenticalwithrootwords.morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree.BoundMorphemes——Themorphemescannotoccurasseparatewords.Theyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords，e.g.recollection(re+collect+ion)collect-freemorphemere-and-ionareboundmorphemes.(includeboundrootandaffix)Boundmorphemesarefoundinderivedwords.Boundroot——Aboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot，itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.Take-dict-forexample：itconveysthemeaningof“sayorspeak”asaLatinroot，butnotasaword.Withtheprefixpre-(=before)weobtaintheverbpredictmeaning“tellbeforehand”。Contradict“speakagainst”。BoundrootsareeitherLatinorGreek.Althoughtheyarelimitedinnumber，theirproductivepowerisamazing.Affixes——Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.Almostaffixesareboundmorphemes.Mostallaffixesandboundmorphemes.9.InflectionalmorphemesorInflectionalaffixes——Affixesattachestotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional，thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.Thenumberofinflectionalaffixesissmallandstable.a.Thereistheregularpluralsuffix-s(-es)whichisaddedtonounssuchasmachines，desks.b.Simplepresentforthethirdpersonsingular.-s(-es)c.Thepossessivecaseofnouns.'sd.-erand-esttoshowcomparativeandsuperlativedegreee.Thepasttensemarker-edf.-ingtoformpresentparticiplesorgerunds.DerivationalmorphemesorDerivationalaffixes——Derivationalaffixesareaffixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.Prefixes——Prefixesareaffixesthatcomebeforetheword，suchas，pre+war，sub+sea

Suffixes——suffixesareaffixesthatcomeaftertheword，forinstance，blood+y.Root——Arootisthebasicformofaword，whichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.(Whatremainsofawordaftertheremovalofallaffixes.).e.g.“internationalists”removinginter-，-al-，-ist，-s，leavestherootnation.Stem——aformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.E.g.“internationalists”，nationisarootandastemaswell.astemmayconsistofasinglerootortworootsandarootplusaaffix.astemcanbearootoraformbiggerthanaroot.Boundrootboundbound第四章wordformationTheexpansionofvocabularyinmodernEnglishdependschieflyonword-formation.Notallthewordsthatareproducedbyapplyingtherulesareacceptable.Rulesonlyprovideaconstantsetofmodelsfromwhichnewwordsarecreatedfromdaytoday.Rulesthemselvesarenotfixedbutundergochanges.affixation30%-40%compounding28%-30%conversion26%shortening8%-10%(clippingandacronymy)blendingandothers1%-5%Affixation(Derivation)词缀法 theformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationalaffixestostems.(derivative派生词)Accordingtotheirposition，affixationfallsinto：prefixationandsuffixation.1.1.Prefixation theformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestostems.Itdoesnotchangetheword-classofthestembutchangeitsmeaning.Negativeprefixes-a-(abnormal),dis-(disobey),in-(il-，ir-，im-)(injustice)，non-(non-smoker)，un-(unwilling)un-arethemostproductiveandcanusuallyreplacein-ordis-withadj.Reversativeprefixes-de-(decentralize),dis-(disunite)，un-(unwrap)Pejorativeprefixes-mal-(maltreat),mis—(mistrust)，pseudo-(pseudo-science)Prefixesofdegreeorsize-arch—(archbishop),extra-(extra-strong)，hyper-(hyperactive)， macro-(macrocosm) ，micro—(microcomputer) ，mini—(mini—election)，out—(outlive)，over—(overweigh)，sub—(subheading)，super—(superfreeze)，sur—(surtax)，ultra—(ultra—conservative)，under—(underdeveloped)Prefixesoforientationandattitude-anti-(anti—nuclear)，contra—(contraflow)，counter—，pro—(pro-student)Locativeprefixes-extra-(extraordinary),fore-(forehead)，inter-(inter-city)，intra-(intra-party)，tele-，trans-Prefixesoftimeandorder-ex-(ex-wife),fore-(foretell)，pre-，re-(reconsider)NumberPrefixes-bi-,multi-(poly-)(multi-purpose)，semi-(hemi-)，tri-(tricycle)，uni-(mono-)(uniform)Miscellaneousprefixes-auto-,neo-(neo-Nazi),pan-(pan-European)，vice-

4.1.2SuffixationSuffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostems.Changethegrammaticalfunctionofstems(thewordclass).Suffixescanbegroupedonagrammaticalbasis.1.NounsuffixesDenominalnouns(名词+suffix 名词)a.Concrete——-eer(engineer)，-er(teenager)，-ess(hostess)，-ette(cigarette)，-let(booklet)b.Abstract -age(wastage),-dom(处于…状态)(officialdom)，-ery(slavery)，-ery(-ry)，-hood(childhood)，-ing(farming)，-ism(…主义) (terrorism)，-ship(状态)(sportsmanship)Deverbalnouns(动词+suffix 名词)a.Denotingpeople——-ant(assistant)，-ee(trainee)，-ent(respondent)，-er(-or)b.Denotingaction，result，process，state，ect.——-age(linkage)，-al(dismissal)，-ance(attendance)，-ation(-ition，-tion，-sion，-ion)，-ence(existence)，-ing(savings)，-ment(statement)De-adjectivenouns（形容词+suffix 名词De-adjectivenouns（形容词+suffix 名词）-itypopularity)，-nesshappiness)Nounsandadjectivessuffixes ese(Chinese),-anAustralian)，-ist(主义)(socialist)2.AdjectivesuffixesDenominalsuffixes-ed(wooded),-ful(successful),Denominalsuffixes-ish(foolish),-less(priceless),-like(lady-like),-ly(friendly),-y(smoky)-al(-ial,-ical) (cultural,residential),-esque(picturesque),-ic(economic),-ous(-eous,-ious)(coutageous)-icand-icalcanbeaffixedtothesteminsomecases,butdifferinmeaning.Historic(importantinhistory)historical(ofhistory)Classic(great,memorable)classical(ofLatinorGreek) Comic(ofcomedy)comical(funny)Economic(intheeconomy)economical(money-saving) Electric(poweredbyelectricity)electrical(ofelectricity)Deverbalsuffixes able(-ible) (washable),-ive(-ative,-sive)(active,decisive)Adverbsuffixes ly(calmly),-ward(s)(homewards),-wise(clockwise)Verbsuffixes ate(originate),-en(darken),-(i)fy(beautify),-ize(ise)(modernize)-nikmostofthemareconsideredslang.Compounding(Composition)复合法 Compoundingisaformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.ACompoundisa‘lexicalunitconsistingofmorethanonestemandfunctioningbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyasasingleword'.三种形式solid，hyphenated,open4.2.1Characteristics(differfromfreephrases)Compoundsdifferfromfreephrasesinthefollowingthreeaspects:0)PhoneticfeaturesCompound(notabsolute)Freephrase,StressonthefirstelementStressonthesecondelementSemanticfeatures:CompoundsaredifferentfromfreeSemanticphrasesinsemanticunity.Everycompoundshouldexpressasingleideajustasoneword.Alotofcompoundsaretransparentandthemeaningcanbeinferredfromtheseparateelementsofcompounds.c)prammaticalfeatures:Acompoundplaysasinglegrammaticalroleinasentence.Inadjective-nouncompounds，theadjectiveelementcannottakeinflectionalsuffixes.CompoundFreephrase,fineartfinerart.4.2.2FormationofCompoundsMostcompoundsconsistof2stems，butareformedonarichvarietyofpatternsandtheinternalgrammaticalrelationshipwithinthewordsisconsideredcomplex.Nouncompounds;Adjectivecompounds;Verbcompounds(throughconversionandbackformation)p54Backformedverbcompoundsareformedmainlybydroppingthesuffixes，-er，-ing，-ion，-etc.Conversion(zero-derivation,functionalshift)转类法——Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.Thesewordsarenewonlyinagrammaticalsense.Themostproductiveisbetweennounsandverbs.Achangeofgrammaticalfunction；ThedifferentrangeofmeaningConversiontonounVerbtonounalmostallmonomorphemicverbscanbeusedasnouns.1.State(ofmindorsensation)2.Eventoractivity3.Resultoftheaction4.Doeroftheaction5.Toolorinstrument6.PlaceoftheactionAdjectivetonoun(fullconversion,partialconversion)1.Wordsfullyconverted-anounconvertedfromanadjectivehasallthecharacteristicsofnouns.Itcantakeanidenticalarticleor-e(s).2.Wordspartiallyconverted-donotpossessallthequalitiesanoundoes.Theymustbeusedtogetherwithdefinitearticles.Theyretainsomeoftheadjectivefeatures.Wordsofthisclassgenerallyrefertoagroupofthekind.Miscellaneousconversion(thiscoversnounsconvertedfromconjunctions,modals,finiteverbs,prepositions,etc.)Conversiontoverbs1.Nountoverb-verbsofthiskindarealltransitive.2.Adjectivetoverb3.Miscellaneousconversionp62Blending—拼缀法isthewordformationbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.Head+tailforexample:autocide/motel/slurb/cremains/chunnelHead+headforexample:comsat/telex/Amerind/sitcom/FORTRAM Head+wordforexample:medicare/Eurasia/telequiz/atuocampWord+tail forexample:lunarnaut/bookmobile/workfare/tourmobile;;Theoverwhelmingmajorityofblendsarenouns，veryfewareverbsandadjectivesareevenfewer.Clipping截短法-shortenalongerwordbycuttingapartoftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.Peopletendtoveeconomicalinwritingandspeechtokeepupthetempoofnewlifestyle.FrontclippingQuake(earthquake)/Copter(helicopter)/scope(telescope)/phone(telephone)BackclippingDorm(dormitory)/momo()/stereo()/gent()/fan()/disco()FrontandbackclippingPhraseclippingPub()/pop()/zoo()/perm()p65Acronymy首字母缩略法-istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialphrasesandtechnicalterms.4.6.1Initialismsarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordsandpronouncedasletters.It'soneofthewordformationsofacronymy.E.g.IMF/aiemef/=InternationalMonetaryFund.P664.6.2Acronymsarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordandpronouncedaswords..It'soneofthewordformationsofacronymy. E.g.NATO/'neito/=NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization.Back-formation逆生法——-isaprocessofword-formationbywhichawordiscreatedbythedeletionofasupposedaffix.Itisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation..wordscreatedthroughback-formationaremostlyverbs.thereareonlyafewthatcanbeusedasnounsorasbothnounsandverbs.WordsfrompropernamesmodernEnglishhasalargenumberofwordswhichcomefrompropernouns.Theyinclude:1.Namesofpeoplea)Wordsofthisgrouparefromnamesofscientists，investors，etc.thesetermsareusedasmeasurements.////b)Somewordsarefromcharactersinmythology.////c)Somearefromhistoricalfigures.///d)Somewordsarefromcharactersinliterarybooks.2.NamesofplacesManywordsdenotingproducts,objectsormaterialscomefromthenamesofplaceswheretheywerefirstproduced.3.Namesofbooks4.TradenamesWhenpropernounsarecommunized,manyofthemhavelosttheiroriginalidentity.TheycanbeconvertedtootherclassesThesewordscanalsotakesuffixes.Wordsthatarecommunizedfrompropernounshaverichcultureassociationsandthusstylisticallyvivid，impressiveandthough-provoking.第五章WordMeaning（领会）5.1.1Reference所指-therelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.Bymeansofreference，aspeakerindicateswhichthingsintheworld（includingpersons）arebeingtalkedabout.Thereferenceofawordtoathingoutsidethelanguageisarbitraryandconventional.Thisconnectionistheresultofgeneralizationandabstraction. Althoughreferenceisabstract，yetwiththehelpofcontext，itcanrefertosomethingspecific.（领会）5.1.2Concept（概念）-whichbeyondlanguageistheresultofhumancognitionreflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Itisn'taffectedbylanguage.Meaningandconceptarecloselyconnectedbutnotidentical.Theyarebothrelateddirectlytoreferentsandarenotionsofthewordsbutbelongtodifferentcategories.Meaningbelongstolanguage，soisrestrictedtolanguageuse.Aconceptcanhaveasmanyreferringexpressionsastherearelanguagesintheworld.（领会）5.1.3Sense（语义）-denotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.Everywordthathasmeaninghassense.Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.Itisalsoabstraction.5.2Motivation理据 accountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.Englishdoeshavewordswhosemeaningscanbeexplainedtoacertainextent.Mostwordsarenon-motivated.Theconnectionofthesignandmeaningdosenothavealogicalexplanation.5.2.10nomatopoeicMotivation（拟声理据）-thewordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning.（Indicatetherelationshipbetweensoundandmeaning）.Knowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaning.Thesewordswerecreatedbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.Forexample，bang，ping-pang，crowbycocks，etc.SuchechoicwordsarealsoconventionalforthesoundswesayinEnglishmaynotbethesameinotherlanguage.MorphologicalMotivation（形态理据） Compoundsandderivedwordsaremulti-morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanywordsarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombined.（Indicatetherelationshipbetweenwordmeaningandeachmorphememeaning）.Forinstance，airmailmeansto“mailbyair”，miniskirtis“asmallskirt”。Therearealotofwordswhosestructuresareopaque，theirmeaningsarenotthecombinationsoftheseparatewords.5.2.3SemanticMotivation（语义理据） referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.Itexplainedtheconnectionbetweenliteralsenseandfigurativesenseofaword）.E.g.Whenwesaythemouthofariver，weassociatetheopeningpartoftheriverwiththemouthofahumanbeingorananimal.5.2.4EtymologicalMotivation（词源理据）Thehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningoftheword.（Indicatetherelationshipbetweenwordmeaninganditsorigin）.E.g.theword'laconic'meaning'brief'or'short'isderivedfromLaconic，atribeofpeoplewhowereknownfortheir'brevityofspeech'andfortheirhabitofneverusingmorewordsthannecessary.Hencealaconicanswerisa'shortanswer'。Allthewordscommunizedfrompropernounscanbeinterpretedintermsoftheirorigins.5.3Typesofmeaning（领会，运用）Word-formationisnotmonogamousbutacompositeconsistingofdifferentparts.5.3.1Grammaticalmeaning(语法意义)-refertothatpartofthemeaningofthewordwhichindicatesgrammaticalconceptorrelationships，suchaspartofspeechofwords，singularandpluralmeaningsofnouns，tensemeaningofverbsandtheirinflectionalforms.Grammaticalmeaningbecomesimportantonlyusedinactualcontext.DifferentLexicalmeaningmayhavedifferentgrammaticalmeaning.Thesamewordmayhavedifferentgrammaticalmeaning.(p86)Functionalwords，thoughhavinglittlelexicalmeaning，possesstronggrammaticalmeaning，contentwordshavebothmeaningsandlexicalmeaninginparticular.Lexicalmeaning——isconstantinallthewordswit