荷兰智慧充电桩指南

SMART

CHARGINGGUIDEENGLISH

EDITION1ColophonEDITORIALThe

Smart

Charging

GuideispublishedbyElaadNL(TheElaadNLFoundation).PHOTOGRAPHYCONCEPT

&EDITORIALCOMMITTEEArnhem,29February

2020Photos

AllphotosbyElaadNLunlessotherwisetitledAuthors

FrankGeerts,EricvanKaathoven,Cover

Patrick

vanGemertArjanWargers

andPaul

BroosCo-authors

BaertedeBrey,

RobCillessen,HarmvandenBrink,LonnekeDriessen,BramvanEijsden,LotteGardien,PaulKlapwijk,GijsvanderPoel,

NazirRefa,MartijnSiemes,ThijsvanWijk,MariscaZweistraCONTACTDETAILSUtrechtseweg310B426812ARArnhemGraphics

NazirRefaTel

0263120223Mail

info@elaad.nlTwitter@elaadNLWebsite

www.elaad.nlThanks

to

CelinevanAalst,JanvanRookhuyzen,Harm-JanIdema,RickRoorONTWERP

&DESIGNLayout

&

Design

ChrisKarthausCopyright

©

ElaadNL,

2020PleasecontactElaadNLshouldyouwishtousedataorinformationpublishedinthisedition.2Foreword45Chapter

1

IntroductionChapter

2

TheChallengeChapter

3

SmartCharging1937Section3.1:Technical

layerSection3.2:Communication

layerSection3.3:Organisation

layerSection3.4:LegallayerChapter

4

Howcan

weensureSmartChargingbecomes

thenorm?101Finally109110List

ofabbreviationsCONTENTS3ForewordKnowledgeandinnovationcentreElaadNLresearchesandteststhepossibilitiesforSmartCharging.Together

withourmanypartners,weconductresearchintoSmartCharging,i.e.smartandsustainableelectriccarcharging.We

believethatSmartChargingisa

crucialbuildingblockonthewaytoa

sustainableenergysystemforelectriccarspoweredbysunandwindenergy.

ButwhatisSmartCharging?Why

isitnecessary?What

variantsarethere?Which

partiesplaya

role?HowdoesitworkinpracticeandwhatdowestillhavetodotomakeSmartChargingthenorm?We

lookedforbutcouldnotfinda

publicationthatansweredthesequestions.SowedecidedtopublishthisSmartChargingGuideourselves,firstinDutchandnowinEnglish.We

hopethatithelpsanyonewhoisnotyetfamiliarwiththeformandfunctionofSmartCharging,andthatitprovidesnewinsightstothosealreadyfamiliarwithit.I

trustyouwillenjoyreadingthisguide,andshouldyoubeinspired,getintouchaswewouldliketoworktogetherinthefurtherdevelopmentandresearchofSmartCharging.Smart

Chargingis

a

crucialbuilding

blockon

the

road

toa

sustainableenergy

system.Arnhem,

29

February

2020Onoph

Caron,

director

ElaadNL4CHAPTER

1INTRODUCTION5ThethirdpowerrevolutionTheincreasing

importanceofpowerinourlives:

electricdrivingandself-generation

ofsustainablepower.The

arrival

of

the

electric

carand

solar

panels.Andnowwe’reinthemiddleofthethirdpowerrevolution,withsolarpanelsonourroofsandelectriccarsonourdriveways.We

increasinglyheatourhomeswithelectricity,

weplugintopowerourmobility,

andwe’restartingtogenerateandstoreelectricityourselves,forexampleinourelectricallypoweredcars.The

arrival

of

householdelectrical

appliances.Halfwaythroughthetwentiethcentury,

householdelectricalappliancescomeintoourlives:thefridge,freezer,washingmachine,ironandvacuumcleaner.

Asa

result,householdchoresarenolongera

day’swork.The

light

bulb

replaces

thegas

lamp.Reliable,safeandcleanlightentersourhouseholdsinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesreducingourdependencyondaylightforbothworkandlife.62030emissionfreeIntroductionEuropeisontheeveofa

majormobilityrevolution.Ina

relativelyshortperiod,we’llswitchfrompetrolanddieseltoelectricdriving.We’re

onourwaytoachievingoneofthekeyParis

2015climateagreements:toreducetransportemissions.IntheNetherlands,thiskeymessagewastranslatedbythecoalitiongovernmentintothefollowingaim:by2030allnewpassengervehiclesmustbeemission-free.At

thesametime,electricityproductionischangingdramaticallyaswemovefromfossilfuelslikecoalandgastorenewablesourceslikesunandwind.Thesetwotrendscometogetherwhenchargingelectriccars.So,let’s

explorethesetrendsa

bitfurther.PhotoPetrol

pumpSource:Pixabay7Electriccars:nothingnew!SourceJanWouters

‘Theelectriccar:isit’s

1914marketshareachievablein2020?’Thefirstfuel-poweredcarswerebuiltattheendofthe19thcentury;theywereverydifficulttodriveandespeciallytostart.To

starttheengine,thedriverhadtomanuallypumppetroltothecarburettorfloatchamber,

setthethrottleandpre-ignitionmanually,

andcranktheengine.andmuchmorereliablethanpetrolcars.Inventors

like

Edison

and

Marconi

workedonnewbatterytechnologiesasanalternativetoexistinglead-acidbatteries,developingalkalineandiron-nickelversions.In1900,Ferdinand

Porschedesigneda

plug-inhybridcarpoweredbywheelhubmotors.Electriccarswerealsofoundinmotorsport:in1896,thefirstcarracetobeheldinAmericaonRhodeIslandwaswonbyanelectriccar.Electrictaxiescouldbefounddrivingclientsinalltheworld’smajorcities,includingNewYork,

London,andeveninAmsterdam.Theysometimeshadbatterypacksthatcouldbechangedwithin5minutes.Eventhen,whenchargingthebatterypacks,theLondonElectricCabCompanytooktheamountofelectricityavailableontheelectricitygridintoaccount:SmartChargingavantlalettre.PhotoColumbiaMark68VictoriaelectricvehicleSource:Corbis/HallofElectricalHistoryFoundationAt

thetime,cityofficialssawtheelectriccarasa

muchcleaneralternativetohorse-driventransport,ratherthanthepetrol-poweredcar.

Asearlyas1907ataninternationalcongressinBerlin,a

discussionwasheldonthenegativeeffectofexhaustgasesonpublichealth,asitwasrecognisedthatthesecontainedupto3.7percentcarbonmonoxide.Thus,atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,

electriccarswereverypopular:theywerecleaner,

easiertooperate,8Ourfuture,ourhistoryOn

April

19,

1886,

the

very

first

Dutch

power

station,

the

Electric

Lighting

company,startedgeneratingelectricityatKinderdijk,nearRotterdam.Thankstothisnewinvention,streetlightingcouldnowbepoweredbyelectricity,

considerablyreducingthecostsoflightingandextinguishinggaslanterns.Moreover,

this‘new’formofpowerwasmuchsaferandcausedlesssmellandsmokenuisance.Thepowerstationinitiallysuppliedpowerforupto350streetlampsinthearea;notmuchlaterresidentswereallowedtobuyenergyfor12to15guildersperlightbulbperyear.

Thankstothis,thedaysoftheold,smoky,

oilandgaslampswereover;theelectricbulbhadarrived.The

impressive

engine

powering

the

plant

ran

from

12

o’clock

in

the

afternoon

to

10o’clockintheevening.Thepowerwassupplieddirectlytothelampsofsurroundingfactories,whileatthesametimebatterieswerecharged,providingpowertothoseneedingelectricityoutsidethisperiod.Aroundthesametime,anotherpioneeringinventionwasborn:theautomobile.Aswiththepowerplant,thisinnovationmeantthatexistingformsoftransportwerereplacedbya

safer,

cleanerandmoremodernmeans.Thehorseandcarriage,excrementinthestreets,andthehectaresrequiredforgrowingoatsandstrawasfuelwerenowhistory.

Thisnewcarwasnolongerpulledbyhorses,butpoweredbyanenginethatgotitsenergyfromgasoline,steamorelectricity.The

N.V.ElectricLightingcompanyIntheyearsbeforetheFirstWorld

War,

thesethreetypes

coexisted,eachwithitsownadvantagesanddisadvantages.However,

afterthewar,

the‘internal

combustionengine’(ICE)tookover

andtheelectriccaralmostcompletelydisappeared.Itwasconsideredaninterestingexperimentalconceptand,everynowandthen,itreappeared.A

secondgenerationofelectricvehiclesappearedinthe

1990s;

manufacturers

including

General

Motors

(EV1),

CitroënandRenaultbuiltelectriccars,oftenwithlead-acidbatteries.Notallthesemodelswerecommerciallyavailable;Citroën

builtelectricdeliveryvansspecificallydesignedfortheFrenchpostalPhoto

(right)N.V.

ElectriclightingcompanySource:BrushRidderkerk9A

sustainable

energysystem

ispossibleRead

more?

ThefutureDutchfullcarbon-freeenergysystem,KIVIDecember2017Inthefuture,a

fullysustainableenergysystemispossible.Theessentialconditionsforthisarefar-reachingelectrificationof,amongstotherssunandwind.Butasthesesourcescan’tsupplythesameamountofelectricityatanygiventimeandeveryseason,ourfutureenergysystemwillhavetorelyandweeksusingbatteries,howevertobridgetheseasons,wewillneedtostoreenergyina

differentform,forexampleinhydrogen.mobility,

heat

supply

and

major

industries.

heavilyonadjustingdemandtosupplyAllthepowerneededforthishastocome

andonenergystorage.Thisisnowfromsustainablesources,inparticularthe

possibleforshorttermsolutions,daysPhotoAssemblySource:Pixabay10service.However,

duetothepoorstateofbatterytechnology,

theelectric-poweredcarneverbecamea

commercialsuccess.Untilthiscenturyatleast.Lookingbacktothestartofthenationalgridandthearrivalofthecarshowsushowpromisingthistimewas.Onceagainwe’reinthemiddleofexcitingtimes.Inthe2015Paris

climateagreement,itwasagreedthatcountriesshouldtakemeasurestoreducegreenhousegasemissionsinordertolimitfurtherglobalwarming.To

achievethisgoal,EUmemberstatesagreedthattheEUshouldreduceemissionsbyatleast40%by2030.Ultimately,

by2050,emissionsshouldbereducedto80-95%of1990levels.Thesecolossalchallengesforhumanityrequireground-breakingsolutions.Firstofall,therewillbemoreintensiveuseofsustainableenergyinstallationssuchassolarfieldsandwindfarmsonlandandatsea.However,

wewillalsoseeanincreaseinsmaller,

localinitiativesinthefieldofsustainableenergy,

forexamplepeoplegeneratingandusingtheirownsolarenergy,

sendingtheirelectricitybacktothegrid,neighbourhoodsandregionsindependentlymanaginga

windfarmandsharingitsenergy.Figure1WindonlandShareofsustainableelectricityintheNetherlandsWindatseaSolarSource:PBLNationalEnergy2017BiomassPhotoLandscapeSource:Pixabay11Uncertainties

aboutfuturemobilityUnfortunately,

noonecanusea

crystalballtogazeintothefuture.Which

trends

weusecars.Howwillcarownershipwillhavethemostimpact?AndotherquestionsariseaboutthewayInaddition,wehavetoexpecttheunexpected.For

example,carusemaybecomesointerestingthatitsuppressesotheroptions:insteadofgettingonan(electric)bicycleorbus,yousimplyletthecardriveyou.develop?Ascarsremainunusedmostofthetime,theycouldalsobeshared.Ifcarscamewhenweneededthem,wewouldonlyneedabout15-

25percentofthecurrentnumberofvehiclestomeetourneeds.However,

thequestionis:willpeople,collectively,

reallywanttogetridoftheirowncars?It’s

difficulttopredicthowcaruseandcarownershipwilldevelop.Thiswasalsotruewhenthecitywasfilledwithhorsesforourmobilityandaftertheywerequicklyreplacedbycars.Andthisisonceagaintrue.Willcarsbedrivingautonomously?Ifso,towhatextentandwhatwilltheconsequencesbe?Whatdoesthatmeanforchargingthesecars?Willplug-chargingstillbepossible,orwillitbewireless?Onethingisclear:muchwillchange,andmuchmorethanjusttheengine.Butexactlywhatandwhatthefuturebrings,remainsuncertain.01110011001010100101001010010101001001011001010001110011001010100101001010010101001001011001010001110011001010100101001010010100110101001011001100101010010

100101001010100100101100101001001001011001010012The

car’s

ownrevolution.PhotoSolarpanelsOneofthechallengestosustainableenergy,

however,

isthatit’s

notalwayspresentinthesamequantities;thesundoesn’talwaysshine,thewinddoesn’talwaysblowstrongly.

Moreover,

energyisoftenneededattimesotherthanitsproduction.Thegridwillthushavetoadapttoa

diverseandintermittentsupplyofrenewableenergy.

While

to

date,

the

supply

generated

by

power

stations

has

always

adapted

todemand,inthefuture,demand,e.g.whenchargingelectriccars,willhavetoadjusttothesupplyavailablefromsolarandwindenergy.Source:PixabayThemessagetonewandexistingcarmanufacturersisclear:besustainableandclean.Citiesareextremelyworriedaboutairqualityresultingfrompetrolanddieselengineemissions.Thedependenceonfuel-producingcountries,theCO2emissionsassociatedwithcombustionenginesandtheircontributiontoclimatechange,makeanalternativenecessary:electriccars.Carmanufacturersarecurrentlyinvestingmassivelyindevelopingelectricvehicles.For

thefirsttimesincethecarappearedonthescene,electriccarshavebecomecompetitiveagain.Thisisduetotheirrapidlyimprovedperformance,anever-increasingrangeofmodels,andlowerprices.Moreover,

governmentsaresettingmassivetargetsforthesalesofzeroemissionvehiclesonly.

Theriseoftheelectriccarseemsunstoppable.13Buses,

trucks,boatsandaircraftMobilityelectrificationisaboutmuchmorethanprivatecars.Infact,electrictransportisalreadyextremelycommoninpublictransportsystems.Thinkoftrains,subways,tramsandtrolleybuses;three-quartersofallpassengerpublictransportkilometresarealreadypoweredbyelectricity.

Inthemeantime,fossil-fueldrivenbusesarebeingrapidlyreplacedbyelectricones,whichmeansthatbyAndthere’sevenmore.Thefirstelectricinlandvesselsarealreadysailing,andthefirstsmallelectricaircraftareinflight.Norwayaimstohavealldomesticflightspoweredelectricallyfrom2040.Fullelectrificationofsea-goingvesselsandlargecivilaviationaircraftforintercontinentalflightsstillseemsfaraway,

butsmallelectricfour-seaterplanesarenowflyingjustasfastandasfarasWithina

decade,weexpectthistransformationtoapplytoalmostallbusinessformsofmobility,

especiallythosewheremanykilometresaremade.Electricisnotonlygoodfortheenvironment,it’s

theonlywaytobecompetitiveinthenearfuture.PhotoQBuzzPublic

transport

busesare

rapidly

becomingelectric-powered.2030atthelatest,theentireDutchpublic

theirpredecessors.transportsystemwillbeemission-free.Themarketforelectrictrucksisstillinitsinfancyandcurrentlyitmainlyinvolvesconvertingexistingvehiclesandsmallproductionseries.However,

a

rangeofmodelsfromdifferentmanufacturersisonitsway.

Assoonasmanufacturershavetheproductioncapacity,

we’llseea

spurtinthegrowthoftheseelectrictrucks.Thepriceperkilometreisexpectedtobesomuchlowerthatitwillnolongerbefinanciallyviabletocontinuerunningondiesel.It’s

evenpossiblethatthistransformationwillbeevenfasterthanwhatwe’veseentodatewithelectriccars.14ElaadNL

Outlook

(H)ElaadNL

Outlook

(M)ElaadNL

Outlook

(L)Figure

2aExpectedgrowthinelectriccarsupto2035intheNetherlandsElaadNL

Outlook

(H)Figure

2bElaadNL

Outlook

(M)ElaadNL

Outlook

(L)ExpectedshareofelectriccarsasaproportionofthetotalfleetintheNetherlandsIt’s

quite

clear:

there

will

be

many

more

electric

cars

driving

further

withincreasingly

improved

batteries.

However,

all

these

cars

have

to

be

reliably

andsafely

charged

using

the

grid.15It’sonlythestartIn

the

near

future,

we’ll

see

a

rapidgrowth

of

electric

cars,

from

theircurrent

few

percent

points

to

100percent

of

all

new

cars

in

2030.

Whatyou

often

see

with

the

introduction

ofnew

devices

is

that

their

acceptancefollows

a

set

pattern.

It

startsFigure3Innovationadaptioncurve.Source:wikimediasomewhat

hesitantly

with

the

realpioneers

(innovators),

then

slowly

gainsmore

mass

(early

adopters)

and

thentakes

over

the

market

at

an

acceleratedpace

(majority).

And

of

course,

therewill

always

be

some

people

left

behind(laggards).InnovatorsEarly

AdoptersMass

marketAround2010,wesawthearrivalofthefirstmodernelectriccarsonthemarketsuchastheTesla

Roadster,

theNissanLeaf,quicklyfollowedbytheRenaultZOEandtheTesla

ModelS.Thiswasaccompaniedbylargenumbersofplug-inhybrids.Carswitha

plugandchargingpointshavequicklygrownfrombeinganodditytotheircurrentrecognisable,butstillmodest,placeonourstreets.TheNetherlandsisaninternationalleaderincharginginfrastructuredevelopment:uniqueintheworldisthatelectriccardriverscanuseanychargingpointwiththeirchargecard.Theelectriccarhasmovedonfromitspioneeringphase.Manymoremodelsarenowavailablefroma

greaterrangeofcarmanufacturers.Theyarebecomingmoreaffordableandtheirrangeisincreasing.Thenumberofchargingpointsisalsogrowing,bothonthestreetandincreasinglyathomeandwork.Inaddition,severalnetworksoffastchargersarebeinginstalledacrossEurope,withincreasinglyhigherchargingspeeds.Inthesameperiod,wehaveseena

massivetransformationtoelectrically-poweredpublictransportbuses,andweexpecttoseesimilardevelopmentswithelectrictrucks.Electricdrivinghasbecomethestandardandthestreetsceneisdeterminedbyelectriccars.Notonlyaretheremanynewelectriccarmodels,thesecond-handmarketisalsoelectric-powered.Electricdrivingiscleaner,

quieter,

cheaperandmoreattractivethandrivingonfossilfuels.Thegridisnowthebackboneforelectriccharging,inallshapesandsizes.16ConclusionWe

arelookingatanexpectedsubstantialgrowthinthenumbersofelectriccarsandinsustainableelectricityproductionfromsolarpanelsandwindturbines.Wepredictthatthisgrowthwillonlyacceleratefurther.

We’re

stillatthestartofwhatispossible,andhavetoprepareforthefuture.Inthenextchapter,

wediscussthechallengesthatthispresents.Howcanwemaketheelectriccaranintegralpartofasustainableenergysystem?The

expectationis

that

thisgrowth

willonly

acceleratefurther.Inthisbooklet,weconsiderita

givenfactthatmillionsofcarswillbecomeelectric,andthatourfutureenergysystemwillprimarilybepoweredbysunandwind.PhotoTesla

Semi-truckSource:Tesla17PhotoAlliander18CHAPTER

2THECHALLENGE19ThebenefitsofelectricdrivingAnelectriccarusesenergymuchmoreefficientlythana

gasolineordieselcar.Thecombustionenginesofthelatterhaveanefficiencyof25-35percent;thismeansthatroughlytwothirdsoftheenergycontainedinthefuelislosttoheatviathecoolingsystemandtheexhaust;onlyonethirdisactuallyusedtomovethecar.CO

emissionsEvenwith,mainlygrey,

electricityproducedfromcoalandgas-firedpowerstations,onbalancetheelectriccaremits2To

makea

faircomparisoninenergyconsumption

and

CO2

emissions

between

lessCO2thana

gasolineordieselcar.theconventionalandtheelectriccar,wehaveofcoursetolookattheentirechain:fromenergysourcetoexhaust,eventhoughanelectriccardoesn’thavethelatter!We

callthiswell-to-wheel.Moreover,

wealsoneedtoaccountfortheenergyrequiredtoproducea

carand,attheendofitslifecycle,torecycleit.Thisleadstothefollowingequation:Chargingelectriccarsusingenergyfromrenewablesourcesonlymaximisestheenvironmentalbenefit.Anelectricmotorismuchmoreefficientandcanachieveanefficiencyof90-95percent.Theenergylossinanelectriccarismainlyduetothefactthatthealternatingcurrent(AC)

fromthegridhastobeconvertedintodirectcurrent(DC)thatcanbestoredinthebattery.TheenergyisthenconvertedfromDCtoAC

againbecausethecar’selectricmotorrunsonAC.PhotoMotorSource:PixabayCO2-emissions

ingram/kilometreDiesel/petrolCompletely

electric

carFigure

4EnergyandenvironmentalaspectsofpassengervehiclesOil

production,

refining

&

transport

27-300*

In

terms

of

electricityproduction,

TNO

examined

twoscenarios

in

the

study:

all-greenelectricity

versus

a

mix

of

greyand

green

electricity,

withMotor

emissions

while

driving140-17000Electricity

production

and

transport9-105*(including

net

loss)Vehicle

manufacture

and

recyclingTotalSource:TNO(2015)4664213-24673-169emissions

of

447

g

/

kWh.20ChallengeSoweseeandexpectanenormousgrowthofelectriccarsandofelectricitygeneratedbythesunandwind.Thechallengewecurrentlyfaceishowtosustainablychargemillionsofelectriccarswithoutanyproblems.Canwegenerateenoughelectricity?Isthatalsopossiblefromsustainablesourcessuchassunandwind?Canallthesecarschargeatthesametime?Andwillthatpowerbeavailableintherightplaces?Thesearethequestionsaddressedinthischapter.The

challengewe

face

is:Isthereenoughenergyforallthese

electriccars?how

can

wesustainablycharge

millionsof

electric

carswithout

anyproblems?In2030,somepeoplepredicta

fleetof1.9millionelectricpassengervehicles;aquarterofallourcars.Chargingthesecarswillrequirearound6

terawatthours(TWh)

ofelectricalenergyperyear-

that’s

6

billionkilowatthours!Thisiseasilycalculatedbyestimatingthenumberofkilometresdrivenbycarsinthepastandthenumberofkilometresthatanelectriccarcandriveon1

kilowatthour.Moreover,

electricbuses,trucksandeveninlandvesselsandsmallplaneswillneedcharging.Ifultimately-

perhapsin2050?-

allmobilityiselectric,thiswillrequirearound20TWh

ofelectricity.

Thesenumbersraisethequestion:canenoughelectricitybegeneratedintheNetherlandsforalltheseelectricvehicles?Electricityproductiontraditionallyoccursincoalorgas-firedpowerstationsandinnuclearpowerstations.Additionally,

someindustriesandgrowersproducetheirownelectricitywithsmallerproductionunitsorcombinedheatandpowerplants.IntheNetherlandsapproximately31gigawatts(GW)generationpowerisavailable.Theoretically,

wecanproducemorethan270TWh

ofelectricityin8,760operatinghoursperyear(365daysx

24hours).Butwedon’tneedthatmaximumcapacityatalltimes-

farfromit:wecurrentlyusearound120TWh

ofenergyeveryyear.If20TWh

isneededforallelectrictransportin2050,anaverageof2.3gigawatts(GW)ofproductioncapacityisrequired;that’s

only6

percentofexistingtheoreticalproductioncapacity.21Howdoes

anEVwork?Justlikea

fossilfuelpoweredcar,

anelectriccarhasanenginethatdrivesthewheels.However,

anelectriccarenginedoesn’tgetitsenergyfromgasolineordiesel,butfroma

battery.weightandmaintenance.Moreover,

anelectricmotorcontainsmuchlesspartsthananinternalcombustionengine,andnooilhastobemeasuredorchanged.Anelectriccarthereforehaslowermaintenancecosts.Anotherimportantfeatureoftheelectricmotoristhatitactsasa

dynamo:whena

carslowsdown,forexampleonaroundabout,theelectricmotorfunctionsasa

dynamo,rechargingthebattery.Electricmotorsuseenergymuchmoreefficiently;theyhavea

largertorqueandspeedrangethancombustionengines.Thismeansanelectriccardoesn’tneeda

gearbox.Thishasmanyadvantages:thecarhasmorespace,anditsavesonPhotoEVSource:USDepartmentofEnergy22Thisiscertainlyfeasiblebecause,atthemoment,morethan50percentofourcapacityisonlyusedatpeaktimes.Ifyoucomparethe20TWh

neededtomakeallmobilityelectricwiththecurrent120TWh

total,thatamountstoa

slightlylessthan17percentincrease.Butthiswon’tbeanimmediatechange;thisisaboutadecades-longgrowthinelectricityconsumption.Thismustbefeasible.Canitallbegenerated

sustainably?Theworldischangingfast.We’ll

stopusingnaturalgasandcoalinpowerplantsandincreasinglyproduceelectricitythroughwindturbinesandsolarpanels.At

theendof2018,wehadalmost9

GWofinstalledgenerationcapacity,

producing14TWh

intotal.Moreover,

withbiomassandbiogas,a

fewsmallhydropowerstationsandwasteincinerationplantsallofwhichalsoproduce‘greenenergy’,in2018weproduceda

totalof18TWh

ofenergyfromrenewablesources.Sustainableenergyproductionisgrowingfast:theClimateAgreementintheNetherlandsstatesa

targetof84TWh

energyin2030.Thisincludes7

TWh

‘small-scalesolarpowerprojects’.Figure5SolarandwindenergydevelopmentintheNetherlandsuptoandincluding2017source:CBS(StatisticsNetherlands)EnTrance(2018)WindonlandWindatseaSolarShare23Thehydrogen-powered

electriccarInadditiontobattery-electricpoweredcars,thereisanothertypeofelectrically-drivencar:thehydrogenfuelcellcar.You

fillyourcarwithhydrogengasunderhighpressure,andthisisusedinthefuelcelltogenerateelectricitytopowertheelectricmotor.‘Greenhydrogen’canbeproducedbyelectrolysis,but20-35percentoftheenergyislost.Thehydrogenisthenconvertedbackintoelectricitybythefuelcellinthecar;heretoo,around35percentoftheenergyremainsunused.Thus,theenergychainefficiencyofahydrogencarisa

factor3

worsethanthatofa

battery-electriccar;thisimpliesthatthreetimesasmuchgreenenergyisneededforhydrogencars.SourceWTT(LBST,

IEA,Worldbank),

TTW,T&EcalculationsCars:Batteryelectricmostefficientbyf