语言学考试要点

CHAPUTER1Definitionoflanguage<1>humanspeech;theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans;asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedforexpressionofsuchasystem<2>anymeansofexpressingorcommunicating,asgestures,signs,oranimalsounds;aspecialsetofsymbols,letters,numerals,rules,etc.usedforthetransmissionofinformation,asinacomputer;…DesignfeatureoflanguageArbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacementArbitrariness:arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning,arbitrarinessatsyntacticlevel,arbitrarinessandconventionDualityismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Creativitymeanslanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventandconceptswhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.FunctionsoflanguageInformative,interpersonalfunction,performative,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunction,metalingualfunction.DefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageor,alternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage,linguisticisarichandexcitingfield.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,填空了解大意即可）Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Sociolinguisticsisanumbrellatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Descriptivevs.prescriptiveThefirstisaprescriptiveacommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.Saussure’sdiachroniclinguisticsisthestudyoflanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.CompetenceandperformanceAlanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticcompetence.Andperformancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Chapter2Thedifferencebetweenphonetics语音学andphonology音系学Theformerstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Thelatteristhestudyofthesoundpatternsansoundsystemoflanguages.Itaimto“discovertheprinciplethatgovernthewaysoundsareorgthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andexplainthevariationsthatoccur.”Whatisconsonant辅音？Consonantsareproduced“byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.”whatiscoarticulation协同发音？Whensimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,thisprocessiscalledcoarticulation.whatisphoneme音位？Phonemereferstoa“unitofexplicitsoundcontrast”theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.whatareminimalpairsMinimalpairsarepairsofwordsthatexceptforonephenomicdifferencesoundalike.Theonephenomedifferencecanmakeasignificantdifferenceinmeaningbetweentwowords.whatisallphone音位变体？Tobringoutthe“phonetic”difference,anaspiratedsoundistranscribedwithariseafterthesound,suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallphone.whatisassimilation同化现象？Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.whatissuprasegmentals超音段特征？Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsaresyllable,stresstone,andintonation.Chapter3Definitionofmorpheme语素？Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.freemorpheme:thosethatmayoccuralone,thatis,thosethatmaymakeupwordsbythemselves,arefreemorpheme.Boundmorpheme:thosethatcannotoccuraloneandmustappearatleastwithanothermorphemearecalledboundmorpheme.Chapter4Thethreebranchesofsyntactic句法？Positionalrelations;relationsofsubstitutability;relationsofco-occurrence.whatisICanalysis?Todismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthethreenodesoftreeiscalledimmediateconstituentanalysis.category范畴：Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,andwearetalkingaboutthegrammaticalcategoriesinthesecondsense.Agreement一致关系：Maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanother,shallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory.Conjoining连接：ReferstotheprocesswhereoneclauseiscoordinatedorconjoinedwithanotherEmbedding嵌入：Embeddingreferstothemeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinthesentenceinsyntacticsubordination.Chapterswhatisthereferentialtheory指称论？Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.hyponymy上下义关系：Relationshipofinclusionisrelationshipbetweenthespecificandthegeneralmeaningsofthewords.Theformerincludedthelatter,e.g.”sheep”isincludedin"animal"theformerissubordinate,thelatterissuperordinatewhatiscomponentialanalysis成分分析法？Theconceptualmeaningcanbebrokendownintoitsminimaldistinctivecomponentswhichareknownassemanticfeatures.Suchanalysisiscalledcomponentialanalysis.Chapter6whatiscognition认知？Theprocessinvolvedinknowing,ortheactofknowing,whichinitscompletenessincludesperceptionandjudgment.Cognitionincludesallprocessesofconsciousnessbywhichknowledgeisaccumulated,suchasperceiving,recognizing,conceiving,andreasoning.Putdifferently,cognitionisanexperienceofknowingthatcanbedistinguishedfromanexperienceoffeelingorwilling.Itisoneoftheonlywordsthatreferstothebrainaswellastothemind.whatispsycholinguisticsanditssixsubjectofresearch?Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;tusuallystudieshepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Thesixsubject：acquisition习得;comprehension理解;production产生;disorders障碍;languageandthought语言和思维；neurocognition神经认知whatiscognitivelinguistics认知语言学？Cognitivelinguisticsisanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguagethatemergedinthe1970sasareactionagainstthedominantgenerativeparadigmwhichpursuesanautonomousviewoflanguage,whichisbasedonhumanexperiencesofthewordandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.whatisconstrual识解？Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaystroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetccategorization范畴化anditsthreelevels？Categorizationistheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.Threelevel:basiclevel基本层次范畴;superordinatelevel上位范畴andsubordinatelevel下属层次范畴Basiclevel:thecategoriesatbasiclevelarethosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.Superordinatelevel:superordinatecategoriesarethemostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenoughfeaturesincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.Subordinatelevel:theyhaveclearlyidentifiablegestaltsandlotsofindividualspecificfeatures.Atthislevelweperceivethedifferencebetweenthemembersofthebasiclevelcategories.whatisimageschema意象图式？MarkJohnsonproposesimageschemas.Hedefinesanimageschemaasarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.Forexample,acenter-peripheryschema-aphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore:thestructureofapple,anindividual'sperceptualsphere...whatismetaphor隐喻anditsthreecategories.Metaphorinvolvescomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.Threecategories:ontologicalmetaphor实体隐喻;structuralmetaphor结构隐喻andorientionalmetaphor方位隐喻7whatismetonymy转喻？Metonymy,inthecognitiveliterature,isdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalaccesstothetargetwithinthesamedomain.Chapter7speechcommunity语境：Itisagroupofpeoplewhoshareasetofnormsandexpectationsregardingtheuseoflanguage.whatissapir-whorfhypothesis萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设？Inlinguistics,thesapir-whorfhypothesispostulatesasystematicrelationshipbetweenthegrammaticalcategoriesofthelanguageapersonspeakandhowthatpersonbothunderstandstheworldandbehavesinit,whichisknownasSWH.whydoweneedtoteachcultureinourownlanguageclassroom.Atogetstudentfamiliarwithculturaldifferences;Btohelpthestudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthememberofthetargetculturewill;Ctoemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompractices.whatiswomanregister女子英语文体？WRinlanguagetakesonthefollowingfeatures:Awomanusemore"fancy"colortermssuchas"mauve"and"beige".Bwomanuselesspowerfulcursewords.Cwomanusemoreintensifierssuchas"terrible"and"awful".Dwomanusemoretagquestions.Fwomanusemorestatementquestionslike"dinnerwillbereadyatseveno'clock"witharisingintonationattheend.Gwoman'slinguisticbehaviorismoreindirectand,hence,morepolitethanmen's.whatissociolinguistic?Sociolinguistics,asainterdisciplinarystudyoflanguageuse,attemptstoshowtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Inthisdisciplinewehavetwoimportantthingtothinkabout:structuralthingsandtheiruseinsocioculturalcontext.Chapterswhatisthespeechacttheory言语行为理论？Thisisthefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse,whichorganizedwiththeoxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustin.whatisperformantives施为句？Somesentencescannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse,theutteringofthesesentencesis,orisapartof,thedoingofmanaction.sotheyarecalledperformatives.whatisthetheoryofthelocutionaryact彳亍事行为理论？Locutionaryact发话行为：itisthebasiclinguisticactionofvoicing,ameaningfulsequenceofwords.Itisbymeansoflocutionaryactsthatonesucceedsinexpressinginformationordoingotherthingswithwords.Illocutionaryact行事行为:可译为言外之意，无具体含义，需举例。Perlocutionaryact取效行为：Inwhichtosaysomethingcanmeantodosomethingconcernstheconsequentialeffectsofalocutionuponthehearer,whetherornottheseeffectsareintendedbyspeaker,theycanberegardedaspartofactthatthespeakerhasperformed.Thisact,whichisperformedthrough,bymeansof,alocutionaryact,iscalledaperlocutionaryact.whatiscooperativeprinciple(CP合作原则？Inlinguistic,theCPdescribeshowpeopleinteractwithoneanother.AsphrasedbyPaulGrice,whointroducedit,itstates,”makeyourcontributionssuchasitisrequired,atthestageatwhichisoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”Throughphrasedasaprescriptivecommand,theprincipleisintendedasadescriptionofhowpeoplenormallybehaveinconversation.whatisconversationalimplicature会话定义？Itisatypeofimplicatedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconversationalmeaningofwordtogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.Chapter11whatisuniversalgrammar(UG普遍语法？Linguisticsthatsuggeststhattherearepropertiesthatallpossiblenaturalhumanlanguagehave.Thetheorysuggeststhatsomerulesofgrammararehard-wiredintothebrain,andmanifestthemselveswithoutbeingtaught.whatiscorpus语料库？Acorpusisacollectionoftextinputintoacomputer.whatisinterlanguage中介语言？Thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.whatiscommunicativecompetence交际能力？Itreferstowhatalearnerknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.whatiscontrastiveanalysis对比分析？Itisawayofcomparinglanguageinordertodeterminepotentialerrorsfortheultimatepurposeofisolatingwhatneedstobelearnedandwhatdoesnotneedstobelearnedinasecondlanguagelearningsituation.thedifferencebetweenmistake失误anderror错误？Errorsusuallyarisefromthelearner'slackofknowledge;itrepresentsalackofcompetence.Inotherwords,thelearnerdoesnotknowtherightfromorisunabletouselanguagecorrectly.Mistakeoftenoccurwhenlearnersfailtoperformtheircompetence.Inotherwords,thelearnerhasalreadylearnedtheknowledgeorskillbutsimplyfailtofunctioncorrectlyduetolackofattentionorotherfactors.Chapter12whatarethe3importantpointofPragueschool布拉格学派？Firstitwasstressedthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigationbutnorigidtheoreticalbarrieriserectedtoseparatediachronicstudy.Second,therewasanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.Itwasarguedthatnoelementofanylanguagecanbesatisfactorilyanalysedorevaluatedifviewedinisolation:assessmentcanonlybemadeifitsrelationshipisestablishedwiththecoexistingelementinthesamelanguagesystem.Inotherwords,elementareheldtobeinfunctionalcontrastoropposition.Third,languagewaslockedonasfunctionalinothersense,thatis,asatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforcommunityusingit.whatisfunctionalsentenceperspective(FSP句子功能前景？Itisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterancesintermsoftheinformationtheycontain.Theprincipleisthattherol