组织结构的决定因素

组织结构的决定因素Whydostructuresdiffer?Organizationalstructuresrangedfromthehighlystructuredandstandardizedbureaucracytothelooseandamorphousboundarylessorganization.Theotherdesignstendtoexistsomewherebetweenthesetwoextremes.MechanisticModelOrganicModelHighspecializationCross-functionalteams•RigiddepartmentalizationCross-hierarchicalteams•Clearchainofcommand•Freeflowofinformation•NarrowspansofcontrolWidespansofcontrolCentralization•Decentralization•HighformalizationLowformalization•TwoextrememodelsoforganizationdesignMechanisticmodelOneextremewecalltheMechanisticmodel.Itisgenerallysynonymouswiththebureaucracyinthatithasextensivedepartmentalization,highformalization,alimitedinformationnetwork(mostlydownwardcommunication),andlittleparticipationbylow-levelmembersindecision-making.OrganicmodelAttheotherextremeistheorganicmodel.Thismodellooksalotliketheboundarylessorganization.It'sflat,usescross-hierarchicalandcrossfunctionalteams,haslowformalization,possessesacomprehensiveinformationnetwork(utilizinglateralandupwardcommunicationaswellasdownward),anditinvolveshighparticipationindecisionmaking.Withthesetwomodelsinmind,we'renowpreparedtoaddressthisquestion:whyaresomeorganizationsstructuredalongmoremechanisticlineswhileothersfolloworganiccharacteristics?Whataretheforcesinfluencingthedesignthatischosen?Determinantsofanorganization'sstructure■StrategyAnorganization'sstructureisameanstohelpmanagementachieveitsobjectives.Itisonlylogicalthatstrategyandstructureshouldbecloselylinked.Morespecifically,structureshouldfollowstrategy结构追随战略.Ifmanagementmakesasignificantchange做出重大的改变initsorganization'sstrategy,thestructurewillneedtobemodifiedtoaccommodateandsupportthischange.■OrganizationsizeConsiderableevidencesupportstheideathatanorganization'ssizesignificantlyaffectsitsstecture组织的大小深刻地影响着组织结构.Forinstance,largeorganizations—thosetypicallyemploying2,000people—tendtohavemorespecialization,moredepartmentalization,moreverticallevels,andmorerulesandregulationsthandosmallorganizations.However,therelationshipisn'tlinear.Rather,sizeaffectsstructureatadecreasingrate.Theimpactofsizebecomeslessimportantasanorganizationexpands.Whyisthis?Essentially,onceanorganizationhasaround2,000employees,it'salreadyfairlymechanistic.Anadditional500employeeswillnothavemuchimpact.However,adding500employeestoanorganizationthathasonly300membersislikelytoresultinashifttowardamoremechanisticstructure.TechnologyThetermtechnologyreferstohowanorganizationtransfersitsinputsintooutputs组织如何将输入转变为输出.Everyorganizationhasatleastonetechnologyforconvertingfinancial,human,andphysicalresourcesintoproductsorservices.Thecommonthemedifferentiatingtechnologiesistheirdegreeofroutineness.Bythiswemeanthattechnologiestendtowardeitherroutineornon-routineactivities.Theformerarecharacterizedbyautomatedandstandardizedoperations.Non-routineactivitiesarecustomized,theyincludesuchvariedoperationsasfurniturerestoring,customshoemaking,andgeneticresearch.Althoughtherelationshipbetweentechnologyandstructureisnooverwhelminglystrong,wefindthatroutinetasksareassociatedwithtallerandmoredepartmentalizedstructures.Therelationshipbetweentechnologyandformalizationisstronger.Studiesconsistentshowroutinenesstobeassociatedwiththepresenceofrulemanuals,jobdescriptions,andotherformalizeddocumentation.Finally,therehasbeenfoundtobeaninterestingrelationshipbetweentechnologyandcentralization.Itseemslogicalthatroutinetechnologieswouldbeassociatedwithacentralizedstructure,whereasnon-routinetechnologies,whichrelymoreheavilyontheknowledgeofspecialists,wouldbecharacterizedbydelegateddecisionauthority.Thispositionhasmetwithsomesupport.However,amoregeneralizableconclusionisthatthetechnology—centralizationrelationshipismoderatedbythedegreeofformalization.Formalregulationsandcentralizeddecisionmakingarebothcontrolmechanisms,andmanagementcansubstituteonefortheother.Routinetechnologiesshouldbeassociatedwithcentralizedcontrolifthereisaminimumofrulesandregulations.However,ifformalizationishigh,routinetechnologycanbeaccompaniedbydecentralization.Sowewouldpredictroutinetechnologywouldleadtocentralization,butonlyifformalizationislow.EnvironmentAnorganization'senvironmentiscomposedofthoseinstitutionsorforcesthatareoutsidetheorganizationandpotentiallyaffecttheorganization'sperformance潜在地影响组织的绩效.Thesetypicallyincludesuppliers,customers,competitors,governmentregulatoryagencies,publicpressuregroups,andthelike.Whyshouldanorganization'sstructurebeaffectedbyitsenvironment?Becauseofenvironmentaluncertainty因为环境的不确定性.Someorganizationsfacerelativelystaticenvironments—fewforcesintheirenvironmentarechanging;otherorganizationsfaceverydynamicenvironments—rapidlychanginggovernmentregulationsaffectingtheirbusiness,newcompetitors,difficultiesinacquiringrawmaterials,continuallychangingproductpreferencesbycustomers,andsoon.Staticenvironmentscreatesignificantlylessuncertaintyformanagersthandodynamicones.Andsinceuncertaintyisathreattoanorganization'seffectiveness,managementwilltrytominimizeit.Onewaytoreduceenvironmentaluncertaintyisthroughadjustmentsintheorganization'sstructure.Threekeydimensionstoanyorganization'senvironmenthavefound:capacity,volatility,andcomp.lexityThecapacityofanenvironmentreferstothedegreetowhichitcansupportgrowth.Richandgrowingenvironmentsgenerateexcessresources,whichcanbuffertheorganizationintimesofrelativescarcity.Abundantcapacityleavesroomforanorganizationtomakemistakes;scarcecapacitydoesnot.Thedegreeofinstabilityinanenvironmentiscapturedinthevolatilitydimension.Wherethereisahighdegreeofunpredictablechange,theenvironmentisdynamic.Thismakesitdifficultformanagementtopredictaccuratelytheprobabilitiesassociatedwithvariousdecisionalternatives.Attheotherextremeisastableenvironment.Finally,theenvironmentneedstobeassessedintermsofcomplexity,thatis,thedegreeofheterogeneityandconcentrationamongenvironmentalelements.Simpleenvironmentsarehomogeneousandconcentrated.Incontrast,environmentscharacterizedbyheterogeneityanddispersionarecalledcomplex.Thebelowfiguresummarizesthedefinitionoftheenvironmentalongitsthreedimensio