语义学考试复习资料

语义学复习佛脚大全鱼太郎一、填空西方主流语言学派：Traditionalphilology(lexicalmeaning),historicalcomparativeL(lexicalmeaning),structuralL(littleattentiontomeaning),functionalL(meaningcentertheory),TGgrammar(standardtheory),cognitiveL(meaningcentertheory)语言学不同的研究方式与观点：specificvsgeneral,synchronicvsdiachronic,macrolinguisticsvsmicrolinguistics,thoeriticalvsapplied,descriptivevsprescriptive结构主义学派代表人物：Saussure,bloomfield系统功能派代表人物：Firth,M.A.K.Halliday(Ideationalmeaning,interpersonalmeaning&textualmeaning)转换生成语法代表人物:Chomsky(6大阶段:nativism,universalgrammar,autonomy,modularity,formalism,deduction；6变：TGgrammar,standardtheory,extendedstandardtheory,revisedextendedstandardtheory,government&blindingtheory,minimalistprogram),Katz(在standardtheory阶段引入语义成分，使phonology,semantics&syntax成为三大分支)认知语言学代表人物：Lakoffjackendoff语言学三大革命：StructualistL(Saussure:studylanguageitself)—TGgrammar(Chomsky:studymind)—CognitiveL(Lakoff:studyembodiment)Saussure的革命--两分法：19世纪语言学主流：speech,external,diachronic,entity.(Chomsky弃之)认知语言学对TG的六大批判基础：embodiment,specificsideofL,cognitivestrategies,formandmeaning,non-formalism,inductionanddeduction.Analyticphilosophy包括logicalempiricism和ordinarylanguagephilosophy.前者代表有Frege,Russel,Wittgenstein(前期),Schlick,Carnap,Tarski,Davidson,Morris等，后者代表有Moore,Wisdom,Wittgenstein(后期)，Austin,Grice,Searle.西方哲学简史的三大转向： Onotologicalturn—epistemologyturn—linguisticturn。从perceptualism来说是nominalism,重perception和individualism,从rationalism来说是realism,重reasoning,universals,scholasticism语义学分支：philosophicalvslinguisticS/formalvscognitiveS/extensionalvs.intensional/synchronicvsdiachronic/structualistS/TG/RadicalS./FuzzyS/cognitiveSstructuralistsemantics的词义是由paradigmaticrelations和syntagmaticrelations组成，两大steps是semanticfield和componentialanalysis.TG产生的语义学派：Interpretative(Chomsky,Katz:sentencepriority),generative(Lakoff:semanticspriority),Casegrammar(Fillmore:deepcaseframe),Chafesemanticstheory(Chafe),decompositionalsemantics(Katz&Fodor：lexicon&projectionrule)著名理论对应人名：提出分析句和综合句的是：HumeBehaviorism的倡导者：Bloomfield系统意义(Sense)的提出，现代语义学开创者：Frege外延论(denotational)与表征论(representational)的划分：Saade语义场：J.Trier语义成分分析法：Lounsbury,Goodenough词义关系&句义关系：Kempson语义公设(meaningpostulate)：Carnap(1957)语义标示(semanticmarker):Katz真值条件论：Tarski语义三角：Ogden&Richards符号学(semiotics)的trilogy：Morris&Peirce(syntax,semantics&pragmatics)行为语义论：Watson建构论：PiagetSpeechact是最小的语言交流单位：Searle礼貌原则，面子保全原则：Brown&Levinson关联理论：Sperber&wilson新格莱斯理论：Levinson(Quality>Manner>Information)动态语用学：JennyThomas按时间顺序分，语义学包括philologyperiod,traditionals,moderns.(logicals—structualistsfTGs—CognitiveS)语义产生之前对它的评价：dirtyword,Cinderella,dustman,no-man^slandetc.意义有哪些理论？referencetheory(Russel:nominalism,realism),ideationaltheory(Frege),verificationtheory(schlick,carnap:prinicipleofconfirmability),truthvaluetheory(Tarski,Frege),Usetheory(Peirce),Behavioristtheory(bloomfiled,Watson:stimulus-response),thetheoryofsituation(Firth,Halliday, Austin:speechact:locutionary,illocutionary,perlocutionary,felicityconditions), thetheoryofIntention(Grice:ConversationalImplicature,CP,Levinson,Searle),theoryofcomponentialanalysis,theoryofsubstitution,theoryofrelation(Saussure),phenomenologicaltheory(Husserl),existentialisttheory(Heidegger),deconstructionaltheory(Derrida:tracetheory)等Leech对语义学的七分法(hepta-division)：conceptualmeaning(=sense),connocativem,socialm,affectivem,reflectedm,collocativem,thematicm.Sense = sense relations(word:hyponymy,synonymy,autonymy,ambiguity/sentence:entailment,paraphrase,contraction,aubiguious)+senseproperties(words:predicationfeatures/sentence:analyticsentence永真&syntheticsentence可真)语义三角：ConceptSymbol(signifier) Object(signifee)TG句法的生成之道？基础部分是phrasestructure&lexicon,经过deepstructure，到一系列的转换规则，包括compositionality,projectionrule&collocativerules，最后到达surfacestructure，由meaning&phonology来表征(其中lexicon的内容是partofspeech,semanticfeatures,semanticrestriction)(Projectionrule包括embedding,attachment,conversion)UG包括principle+parameterTG中语义是解释句法的，语义是为句法服务的，所以才有intrepretativesemantics.而decompositionalS是巧妙地运用CA到TG的frame来解释语义。TG的哲学本质是blendingphilosophy.CaseGrammar处理的是深层格框的问题，S=modality+propositionWittgenstein提出了gametheory,meaning-in-use,picturetheory(属于referencethory的一部分).

Speechact包括：assertive,directive,commissive,expressive,declarative.Felicitycondiction包括:propositionalcontentrules,preparatoryrule,sincerityrule,essenetialrule语言三要素：phonetics,grammar&meaning中国古代意义理论最高成就是：王夫之第一部训诂学工具书：《尔雅》Behavioristschool说“圣人立象以尽其意…故曰鼓之舞以尽神也。逻辑语义学研究语言形式化(formalization)问题，借用数理逻辑学来描写意义，代表人有Frege,Russell,Tarski,Carnap等。模糊语义学中的graytheory由邓聚龙提出。从研究内涵语义学的carnap到可能语义学的Kripke，Montague都是属于意义范畴.述元结构中，五大基本语义成分：figure,ground,motion,path,manner逻辑包括formallogic&dialecticallogic,其中前者包括induction&deduction符号(notations)与代表：V=forall.E=thereexist,~=negation,&=conjuction,V=disjunction,f=implication,==equivalence.30命题演算中,必然p30命题演算中,必然p反对必然非p可能p下反对可能非pP&q全真才为真，pVq单真都为真，pfqp真q假才假，p=q同值才真语义公设包括hyponymy:Vx(A(x)fB(x))，synonymy:Vx(A(x)fB(x))&Vx(B(x)fA(x)),autonymy:Vx(A(x)f~B(x)).Predication=argument+predicate=semanticcomponents(这是TGS的基础)，注意判断几元谓词二元谓词的关系：symmetry,transitivity,reflexivity.归纳法的组成：inductivereasoningandothers形式逻辑的基本规律：同一：a=a，矛盾：aMa，排中(excludedmiddle)：a=aoraMaMontague语义学包括：truthconditionals,modeltheoretics,possibleworlds,以及PTQ(解决qualifier,verbtense,subjectivemood)语义对立词举例：fireman,overlook,overlie认知语言学主要观点：embodiedview,conceptualization,encyclopediaview,prototypetheory,Imgageschema,metaphor(structuralmetaphor,orientationalm,ontologicalm),iconicityviewCMview.(model&frame),parableview体验哲学的三原则：embodimentofthemind,unconsciousnessofcognition,metaphoricalnatureofthinkingCircularmodel(Saussure)conceptflinguisticsounds—transmissionfthoughtformationLinearModel(Shannon&Weaver):informationsourcefsignaltransmissionfchannelfreceiverfdestinationTriangularModel(Newcomb)强调作用在A,B间的X是socialenvironmentTrapezoidModel(Leech):6steps包括texual,ideational,interpersonal的交流ConicModel(王寅):媒介是form,核心是meaning.模式是PV/WRGS这是以context为基础，以expression为方式，以encoding&decoding和deduction为机制的过程。字典定义的方法：genus+differentia.情感意义中的举例：propaganda:derogatorymeaning/empiricism:commendatorymeaning/liberalism:commendatorymeaning/sophisticated:neutralmeaning意义扩展的方式：radiation&concatenation主动义与被动义：同源形容词含active&passivemeaning,eg.Desirousvs.disirableNB:物为主语，则被动意义，人为主语，则主动意义主观义与客观义：-ed,+to主观；-ing,+for客观，eg.Suspicious好猜忌、可疑的。主题义与次要义：topicsentence—supportingsentences(induction),supportingsentencesftopicsentence(reduction)在discoursemeaning中特别注意connectives的重要性，把握篇章的frame.非常规搭配有哪些？rhetoric,zeugma&syllepsis,newapplicationofidioms,fromillogicaltonormalHeavy的搭配决定哪些语义？如heavyblow,heavycrop,heavynews等搭配在教学中的应用：WPSprogram,wordassociationexercises.两种动词：durativev(=linearmeaning),terminativev.(=dottedmeaning)充分必要性的研究：sufficientcondition中，有甲必有乙，无甲可能无乙,necessarycondition中，无甲必无乙，有甲可能有乙，necessary+sufficientcondition：有甲有乙，无甲无乙。所以得出durativeconditionIf(necessary)〜(sufficient) terminativeverbnecessarysufficientdurativeconditionII56.点性动词有：die,stop,finish,leave,lose,marry,arrive,reach,knock,hit；线性动词有live,work,study,sleep,wait,eat,play,rain,run,study,speak,go,watch点性其他有：at,since,when,ifonly,till(until)；线性其他有：during,for,while,aslongas,till(until),for5days,since1978；点性的体是perfectiveaspect,generalaspect，线性的体是progressiveaspect,generalaspect.(点点相连，线线相接）57点性动词+进行体的三种例外情况：duration,repeatedaction,upcomingaction58终延体与动静体的关系：DurativeTerminativeExampleActionVAsk,call,help,listen,lookProcessVChange,grow,widen,matureFeelingVVAche,feel,hurt,itchTransitionVArrive,die,leave,loseTransientVHit,jump,kick,knockEmotionVHate,love,believe,desireRelationshipVBe,belong,cost,deserve59 “black"的石化：sun-tanned工blackskin,blacktea,ferrousmetal...60选择文章标题应该用superordinate,但不可太大，正确的上下义关系是从concrete至Uabstract.Peirce关于sign的三分法：Icon(image,diagram,metaphor),index,symbolLakoff&Johnson提出metaphoricalcognitivetheory:通过人类的认知和推理将一个概念域(conceptualdomain)系统对应地映合(map)到另一个概念域。Microsystem:At:Dot(能量聚集，如pointat)-On:surfece(论，关于：onpractice)-In:aspect(穿衣：inred,insilks)象似性发展的时期：stalemateperiodfsaussurianperiod(arbitrariness)fpost-saussurianperiod(iconicity)句法&现实具有Isomorphy(同构性)哪些象似性？iconicsequencing(SVO),iconicproximity(如help的例子)，iconicquantity,markediconicityVendler四大时间图解：state,activity,accomplishment,achievement1997年在苏黎世召开语言与文学中的象似性的会议(最近的一次)补充：69.Thisrulerandthispenarelong:L(a)&L(b)70.InRGSPlane,onefactorbasedonwhichRcoulddeferthemeaningofPisacommongeneralizedmeaningandsimilarsituationssharedbyPandR.Cognitiveschool与Chomsky'sFormalistSemanticsschool相抗衡。Taboo属于numeralIconicityGenericsentence类扌旨句：asentenceinwhichsamestatementismadeaboutawholeofindividuals.(有the或a引导)structurallinguistics的基本哲学理论是analyticalphilosophy而TG的是formalism.referringexpression扌旨称语：isanyexpressionusedinanutterancetorefertosthorsb.(itcannotbeexchangedwithpredicates,cuzthereisnocontinuumrunningfromthem.)Leech对语言有多种定义，其中他相信meaning=observablesituation.necessaryconditiononthesenseofapredicateisaconditionwhichthingmustmeetinordertoqualifyasbeingcorrectlydescribedbythatpredicate.反义词的种类：gradable,relational,complementary79白马非马理论是：GongsunLong提出的。Sememeisthesmallestsemanticunitwhichisindivisible.Leech的connotativemeaning是与additionalsubjectivemeaning有关的compositeexpression(合成原贝V)是为了解释Frege'sPrinciple.Snowiswhiteistrueifandonlyifsnowiswhite是Tarski说的。Extensionals与intensionals的区另U是ExtensionalSregardsthereferenceasthecentreoftheirstudy.Semantics最早是谁使用的？MichaelBreal(EssaydeSemantique)Thetheoryofintegrationcanbedescribedasthewholeismorethanhecompositionofitsparts.equativesentenceisonewhichisusedtoasserttheidentityofthereferentsoftworeferringexpressions.dictionary的property有?interconnectedness,completenessofcoverage,precision.analyticity是asensepropertyofsentences.stereotype与prototype有什么区别？stereotype指的是具体特征，prototype指的是entity.cognitivelinguitics的哲学与心理基础是：embodimentphilosophy,embodimentmentalism美国三大pragmatistphilosophers是WilliamJames,Peirce&JohnDeweyidiomsarenamingunitsDonald,Davison提出:togivetruthconditionawayofgivingthemeaningofthesentence.95.XXXisaman.是one-placepredicate.Synonymy是arelationbetweentwopredicatesthathavethesamesense.sentenceisagrammaticallycompletestringofwordsexpressingacompletethough.Lyons按功能把意义分为：descriptive,social&expressive.99语义学作为独立学科发行的书籍是：Semantics:studiesinthescienceofmeaning.100不是deicticword的是place，而易误判不是的是today.101常判断哪个不是predicate?youLogicalsemantics的代表人物是Montague.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis两大要旨是linguisticdeterminism&linguisticrelativity.104现代句意理论创始者是Katz.105既有唯名论又有唯实论的是荀子（正名篇）coreoflinguiticlogic是：byanalyzinglogicalproblems,peoplecansolvelinguiticproblemsLeech的梯形图的缺点是：没有考虑进meaningincommunication.Logicalpositivism是谁提出的：Schlick.二、简单/论述题什么是语义学：a.semanticsisabranchoflinguisticsdealingwiththemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences,however,contrarytopragmaticsitdoesnotanalyzetheintendedspeakermeaning,orwhatwordsdenoteonagivenoccasion,buttheobjective,conventionalmeaninginanarrowsense.synonymofsenseorcontentareciprocalandreverisblerelationshipbetweennameandsense.Sense与Reference的区别：（先给出定义，再做区别）SenseisthecongnitivecontentassociatedwithasignandreferenceistheobjecttowhichthesignreferstoReferenceisconcernedwiththerelationbetweenalinguisticandnon-linguisticunit.wordswithmeaninghavesensebutnotalwayshavereference.Thesamesensemayhavethedifferentreferences.Thesamereferencemayderivefromthedifferentsenses.Inthedictionary,onlythesensecanberecordedasentry.Sense,whichisradical,isthecoreofthemeaningwhilereference,astheperipherizedmember,isnotthatimportant.Senseischaracterizedbystabilityandexplicitness,whereasreferenceisfeaturedbychangeablityandfuzziness.Senseislimitedwhilereferenceisendless.Senseisabstractformoftheworldwhilstreferenceisconcrete.Propositionandsentencemeaningareallsensewhileutterancemeaningbelongtopositition,sentence和utterance的区别？（先定义，再区分）propositionisthatpartofthemeaningoftheutteranceofadeclarativesentencewhichdescribessomestateofaffairs.Sentenceisagrammaticallycompletestringodwordsexpressingacompletethought.Utteranceisanystretchoftalk,byoneperson,beforeandafterwhichthereissilenceonthepartofthatperson.Intermsofcategory,propositionbelongstologics,sentencebelongstosyntaxandutterancebelongstopragmatics.Withregardtoproperties,propositionisabstract,sentenceissomewhatconcreteandutteranceismoreconcrete.Intermsofcreteria,propositionreliesontruthcondition,sentencereliesongrammaticalityandutterancedependsonacceptablity.Astotherelationshipwiththelanguage,propositionhavenothingtodowiththespecificlanguage,whilesentenceandutterancebelongstosomelanguage.Astothedialects,propositionandsentencehavenorelationwithit,whileutterancereliesonit.Intermsofmeterality,thecaseisthesamewithe.Withregardtothesentencepattern,propositionisadeclarativesentence,whileothersarenotlimited.Astotherelationshipwiththemeaning,propositionisthecentreofthemeaningwhichisstableandhasmeaningpotential,sentencecanreflectacertainsenseindifferentpattern,whiletheutterancecanbevariousinmeaningwhichisdeductiveandreal.Asforentailment,PfS,U/S—U/P,S—UAsforambiguity,thereisnoambiguityinpropositionwhiletheothertwomayinvolvesomedegreesofambiguity.Intermsofexpression,propositionisexpressedinlogicalformula,whileothertwoarevariousinsyntacticandpragmaticcategories.什么是训诂学(Chinesetraditionalsemantics)?意在研究名实之争，中国传统研究古书上词义的学科，是传统语文学的小分支。它在魏晋时形成独立学科，清末章太炎发展到高峰，但它和语义学是“两股道上跑的车”中西语义学怎样结合？communication,translation,practicewiththeory语义形式化的优点？repretemeaningsystematicallyandscentificallyb.easytofindtheerrorc.pavethewayforcomputerizationd.clearifythesenserelatione.showtheambiguity.区另Ufuzzy,vague,ambiguous&hedgewordsFuzzy:clearintensionbutunclearextensionVague:severalsenseinanentryAmbiguous:indifferententries.Hedge:somedegreewordseg:about,aroundetc.语言模糊的特征：a.objectivity&universalityb.scope,prototypeandmembershipdegreec.unbalanced.communication&pragmatisms语言模糊的原因：a.objectiveorigin:theworldweliveinisacontinuousentityandhardtofindtheclearboundaryb.subjectivecause:ourcognitionontheworlddiffersfrompersontoperson,c.Linguisticcause:therearecountlessthingsintheworldbutourlanguageislimitedtoexpressthem.10人们怎样理解含糊表达？a.relativeexactnessb.prototypicalityc.collocariond.contexte.morequestions.中西语义对比研究？(Humboldt&Saussure为例)Humboldt认为汉语缺乏语法标志，汉语具有非语音表达形式，汉语有一定文化特性,Saussure认为汉语理据程度最低(motivation),—个字符代表一个词。评价：H较S更加科学客观。Petrification的程度？a.totallywrongequalityb.partiallyequalityc.emotionaldiscrepancyPetrification的原因？a.Namesofthingsaredifferentindifferentplacesb.customsandculturalbackgroundaredifferentc.theintrinsicfeaturesofdifferentlanguagearedifferent怎样防止petrification?A.Explicitlyundertandthemeaninginthecontextb.usebilinguialdictionary.C.understandtheculturebackgroundd.dealwithunlearnproblem.Dunderstandingwordswhileusingposition定义？Itisthatpartofthemeaningoftheutteranceofadeclarativesentencewhichdescribessomestatesofaffairs.reference的定义？arelationshipbetweenaparticularobjectintheworldandanexpressionusedinanutterancetopickthatobjectout.sense的定义？anexpressionisitsrelationshiptosemanticallyequivalentorsemanticallyrelatedexpressionsinthesamelanguage.补充：18.EvaluatetheSemanticTriangle?ItisproposedbyOgdenandRichards,inwhichthesymbolreferstothelinguisticelements,thereferentreferstoobjectintheworldandthoughtreferstotheconcept.Therefore,thesymbolofawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconcept.Inthissystem,concepthasdirectrelationshipwithreferentandsymbolbutsymbolhasnodirectrelationshipwithreferentjustbecauseonethingcanbeexpressedindifferentwords.Intermsofitsshortcomings,itpoorlydealswithpolysemouswords,anditdoesn'thavesemanticmeaningwhenbeingdividedintomorpheme,andonlyafewwordshavethe“signified"andsometimestheyhavedifferentmeaningssothatwecannotdifferentiatethemetc.Allthesentenceswhichcontainambiguouswordsareambiguous,andallthesentenceswhichcontainnoambiguouswordsareunambiguous?判断分析No,Themeaningofthesentenceistosaythatalltheambiguitiesarecausedbyambiguouswords.Itisjustaboutsentenceambiguityontheleveloflexicon.Whilethesentenceambiguityhastwolevels一lexicallevelresultingfromambiguityofawordreflectedbyhomonymyandpolysemyandgrammaticallevelresultingfromdifferentrelationshipsofwords.Therefore,whetherasentenceisambiguousisnotdecidedbyifthereisanyambiguouswordinit,sometimesevenasentencecontaininganambiguouswordisnotambiguous.Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy?Friesmakesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning,andthenLeechfurtherdividesthemintosevencategories,namelyconceptualmeaning,connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,thematicmeaningandcollocativemeaning.Infact,accordingtoWangYin,meaningcanbedividedintomanytypesfromdifferentangles,namely,speaker'smeaningandhearer'smeaningfromtherolesplayedbyparticipants,naturalmeaningandnon-naturalmeaninginthelightofcommunicativeessence,morphememeaning,wordmeaning,sentencemeaningandutterancemeaningfromdifferentstructure,intensionalandextensionalmeaningphilosophically,descriptive,socialandexpressivemeaningrespectivelybyLyons,conceptualmeaningandattachedmeaningaccordingtothedifferentroles,finallytheproposition,sentenceandutterancemeaning.21Howmanysemanticrelationsarethereamongsentence?GiveexampleFour.A.paraphase,eg.Iloveyou=Iamfondofyou.b.entailment.Eg.Tommarriedablondheiressentailsmarkmarriedablondc.contradiction.Eg.Weareunmarriedcouplesd.ambuguity.EgIgiveyouthehammerandsawthroughthewindow.What'sarbitrariness?Youropinionaboutitincontrasttoiconicity?Arbitrariness,proposedbySaussure,referstothefactthattheformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning,whichisthefirstprincipleoflanguage.Butinmyopinion,heoverstateditsimportance,ignoringthefactthatsignifierandsignifiedhaveacertainmotivation.Ontheotherhand,iconicity,proposedbyPierce,referstothefactthatsignifierandsignifiedarenotarbitrary,butmotivated.Inmyview,iconicityisnotanabsolutenegationofarbitrarinessbutacomplementaryfeature.Theyarebothdesignfeaturesoflanguageatdifferentlevels.Atthelowerlevel,arbitrarinessplaysabiggerrolewhileatahigherone,iconicityoverwhelmsarbitrariness.However,totalarbitrarinessmeansatotalnegationofmappingsbetweenhumanconceptandlanguage.Featuresof2placepredicates?Symmetrical/symmetrical,semanticformulaiswrittenasAxy(M(x.y)LM(y,x,)).Transitive/Intransitive,showanattributelikebehindaboveandinfrontof,whichgoeslikeAxyz(R(x,y)&R(y,z)—R(x,z))Reflexive/Irreflexivehavethefollowingsemanticmeaningasequal,identical,Axy(x,y尸R(x,x)Tellthedifferencebetweenpourhimadrinkandpouradrinktohim?Accordingtothecognitivelinguitics,iconicityofdistance,ifpouriscloselyfollowedbyhim,thenthepersonisprobablybepresented,theotherexpressiondoesn'thavethissense.TranslatesentencesintologicalformsAnnisBill'smother.M(a,b)BilllovesCarol,andCarollovesBill.L(b,c)&L(c,b)AnnlovesBill,butAnndoesn'tloveCarol.L(a,b)&〜L(a,c)What'sfeaturesofmetaphoraccordingtocognitivelinguistics?Conventionalityindicatesthatsomemetaphorshavebecomefossilizedordeadmetaphors.Systematicityreferstothewaythatmetaphordoesn'tjustsetupasinglepointofcomparison.asymmetryreferstothewaythatmetaphorsaredirectionalwhichmeanstheyprovokethelistenerorreadertotransferfeaturesfromthesourcetotargetdomain.abstractionmeansthatmetaphorusesamoreconcretesourcetodescribeamoreabstracttarget.Whatdoyouthinkofsemanticformalization?Meritanddemerit?Semanticformalization,whichusesmathematicallogictodescribelanguagemeaning,isoneofthemainstreamsofinevitablesemanticresearch.Merits:a.interpretmeaningmorescientificallyandsystemicallyb.easytocheckordiscovertheerrorsc.helpfultomachinetranslationdinterpretsenserelationsmoreexactlye.formulatetheambiguity.Demerits:a.insufficienttoclarifythecomplicatedsemanticrulesb.makeslanguagechangeintosomestarkormechanicalsigns.C.cannotincludeallkindsofsemanticphenomenon.D.toocomplicatedtobeunderstood.E.somewordscannotbeinterpretedbyformulationinasubtleway.F.theydon'thavethesameformat.What'sthedisadvantageofNamingTheory?Itregardsthatthereisadirectrelationshipbetweenthewordformanditsreference.Thedisadvantageofitisthefollowingthrees.A.allthewordshavesense,butnoteverywordhasitsreferent.B.linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.C.thereareoccasionswhenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.29区别一堆概念？Meaning:associationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealworld.Concept:impressionofobjectsinpeople'smind.Connotation:impliedmeaning,similartoimplicature.Sense:lexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.Denotation:isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjectsbutmaketheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.Reference:theworld-objectrelationshipImplicature:convesationimplicatureisachievedbyintentionallyviolatingtheCP.Signification:themeaningofawordtaughttopupilsmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue.DifferencebetweencognitivelinguiticsandTGL?TGLinguiticsbelongstoformalism.Itisauniversalgrammar.TGlinguististsconsiderlanguageasautonomoussystem,inprincipleindependentofotherknowledgeandcompetence.InTGLmeaningcanbedescribedbytruth-valueandproductionispriortogeneralization.Whilecognitivelinguiticsbelongstofunctionalism.Cognitivelinguististsconsiderthestructuresofgrammarandmeaningchangewithdifferentlanguagesandcompetenceisonepartofhuman'sgeneralcognitivecompetence.Meaningcannotbedescribedbytruth-value.Itisancourseofobjectiveandsubjectivecourseinteracted.CognitiveLconsiderthatgeneralizationispriortoproduction.Differencebetweenprototypeandstereotype?Stereotypeisalistofthetypicalcharacteristicsofthingstowhichthepredicatemaybeappliedwhileprototypeisatypicalmemberofitsextension.Thestereotypeofapredicatemayoftenspecifyarangeofpossibilitiesbutanindividualprototypeofthispredicatewillnecessarilytakesomeparticularplacewithinthisrange.Intermsofspeakers,theymayknowthesterotypebutnotfamiliarwithprototype.MainpointsheldbyNominalismandRealism?In1976,PalmerputforwardtheNamingtheorydividedinto2categories;nominalismandrealism.Themainpointsoftheformeristhatsignalbearsnoinherentrelationshipwithitsreferentwhilethelatteristherelationshipbetweensignalanditsreferentisintrinsic.Majorprinciplesaboutformalsemantics?a.compositionalityb.ruletorulehypothesisc.fragmentaryapproachd.mostcertainprincipleIstheactofaddressingsb.Illocutionaryorperlocutionary?Illocutionary.Becausetheillocutionaryactinherentinanutteranceisintendedbythespeaker,isunderhisfullcontrol.Ifitisevident,itissoastheutteranceismade.Intheactofaddressing,itissththataspeakercandecideforhimselftodo,andbesureofdoingitwhenhedecidestodoit.Thehearerinaspeechsituationcannotdecidewhethertobeaddressedornot.Relationshipbetweeninterpretativesemanticsandgenerativesemantics?Interpretivesemantics(Chomsky,Katz)isapartofChomsky'sTGgrammarwhichholdsmeaningcomesfromsyntax,sosyntaxgoesfirst,semanticsisonlyapartofsyntaxwhichcaninterpretesentences,whichisthegoalofsemantics.Besides,syntaxisbetweenphonologyandsemanticsandsyntaxisgrammaticalbase.AccordingtoCho,therearetwosetsofrulesinTG,transfermationalandprojectionruleswhichdealswithproblemofsyntaxandphonologyandsemanticsrespectively.Generativesemantics(Lakoff)statesthatsyntaxcomesfromsemantics,semanticsgoesfirst.Allsentencescomesfromsemantics,whichwillgeneratethesurfacestructurewiththehelpoftransformationalrulesandphonticsrules.Theroleofsemanticsisnottointerpretbuttogenerate.Moveover,generativesemanticianthinktransformationalrulesareenoughwhicharealsobeingcalledpredicate-liftingtransformations.Differencesbetweenmetaphorandmetonymy?Ametaphorisaconceptualexpressioninwhichthecharactersofthesourcedomainismappedontothetargetdomainwhereasametonymyinvolvestheconceptualmappingtakingplaceacrossdifferentsub-domainswithinthesamecommonorsuperordinateexperientialdomainsothatthesourcedomainmentallyactivatesthetargetdomain.Soitisclearthatmetaphorrelatestotwodomainswhilemetonymyoccurswithinthesamedomain.Metaphoriscognitivelymoreusefulwhilethemajorfunctionofmetonymyistohelpthehearertolocateorrecognizethereferentanditsspecialcharacteristics.What'ssynonymy?Itisusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakersrelyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdenifition.Somesemanticiansmaintainsthattherearenorealsynonymsbecausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects,egshades,stylistics,emotive,ranggofuseetc.StatetheGameTheory?ItisWittgensteinlaterphilosophy.Thetermisintroducedbydescribingsomeexamplesofsimpleprctices,bothrealandimaginar