信息系统概述

南京理工大学机械工程学院工业工程系

©NJUSTDep.OfIndustrialEngineering企业信息化EnterpriseInformatization1南京理工大学机械工程学院工业工程系企业信息化1参考教材：1.《企业信息化教程》韦沛文等编著清华大学出版社2.《管理信息系统精要》肯尼思·C·劳东编著人民大学出版社3.ManagementInformationSystems-ManagingtheDigitalFirm,12thEdition

2参考教材：2本课程主要内容介绍企业信息化的基本概念，企业信息化整体解决方案、集成平台，应用实施等内容，使学生掌握企业信息化相关理论，以及实施方法和支撑环境等技术，注重企业远景规划、产品发展、管理变革信息技术支撑的良好匹配与协调，以适应未来数字化企业的要求。3本课程主要内容介绍企业信息化的基本概念，企业信息化整体解决方TheCourseHelpYouLearnNonroutineSkillsThisisthebestcourseyouchooseforlearningthesefourkeyskills.AbstractReasoningSystemsThinkingCollaborationAbilitytoExperiment4TheCourseHelpYouLearnNonrAbstractReasoningistheabilitytomakeandmanipulatemodels.Systemsthinkingistheabilitytomodelthecomponentsofthesystem,toconnecttheinputsandoutputsamongthosecomponentsintoasensiblewholethatreflectsthestructureanddynamicsofthephenomenon.

Youwillbeaskedtocritiquesystems;youwillbeaskedtocomparealternativesystems;youwillbeaskedtoapplydifferentsystemstodifferentsituations.Allofthosetaskswillprepareyouforsystemsthinkingasaprofessional.5AbstractReasoningistheabilCollaboration

istheactivityoftwoormorepeopleworkingtogethertoachieveacommongoal,result,orworkproduct.Effectivecollaborationisn’taboutbeingnice.Infact,surveysindicatethesinglemostimportantskillforeffectivecollaborationistogiveandreceivecriticalfeedback.6CollaborationistheactivityAbilitytoExperimentSuccessfulexperimentationisnotthrowingbucketsofmoneyateverycrazyideathatentersyourhead.Instead,experimentationismakingareasonedanalysisofanopportunity,envisioningpotentialsolutions,evaluatingthosepossibilities,anddevelopingthemostpromisingones,consistentwiththeresourcesyouhave.7AbilitytoExperiment7第1章信息系统概述InformationSystemsinthe2010s8第1章信息系统概述8主要内容1.1PerspectivesonInformationSystems1.2PositioningITtoOptimizePerformance1.3BusinessPerformanceManagementandMeasurement1.4StrategicPlanningandCompetitiveModels1.5WhyITIsImportanttoYourCareer,andITCareers9主要内容1.1PerspectivesonInform1.1PERSPECTIVESONINFORMATIONSYSTEMS1.1.1Informationinformationisknowledgederivedfromdatainformationisdatapresentedinameaningfulcontext，whilethecontextvariesfrompersontoperson.informationisdataprocessedbysumming,ordering,averaging,grouping,comparing,orothersimilaroperations.具有一定意义和相互联系的事实表达。101.1PERSPECTIVESONINFORMATIOdata？dataisdefinedasrecordedfactsorfigures.原始、不相关的事实表达，是对客体或事件的测量或观测值。11data？11Informationissubjective，thatmeansoneperson’sinformationmaybeanotherperson’sdata.Figure1-112Informationissubjective，that数据和信息的关系信息是我们对数据的解释，或者说是数据的内在含义。数据经过处理、建立相互关系并给予明确的意义后才成为信息。13数据和信息的关系13什么是知识？是对信息的推理、验证。从中得出系统化的规律、概念或经验。知识按性质分类know-what，关于事实方面的know-why，事物的客观原理和规律性方面的，属于科学方面的know-how技巧、技艺、能力方面的，属于技术方面的know-who，特定的社会关系、社会分工和知道者的特长与水平，属于经验与判断方面的。14什么是知识？14前两种类型的知识和第三种类型知识的一部分就属于可编码化的知识，一般较易获得，第三种知识的另一部分和第四种类型知识一般属于隐含性知识与判断类知识即“意会知识”，一般难以获得和掌握。什么是智慧？15前两种类型的知识和第三种类型知识的一部分就属于可编码化的知识数据管理：对客观对象的表达、识别和检测。信息管理：从技术层进行数据的存储、传输、显示使之发生增值等处理过程。知识管理：利用知识的获取方法（如数据挖掘技术）与管理领域知识相结合进行的创新。16数据管理：对客观对象的表达、识别和检测。16Allinformationisnotequal:Someinformationisbetterthanotherinformation.1.1.2TheCharacteristicsofGoodInformationFigure1-217Allinformationisnotequal:AccurateAccuracyiscrucial;managersmustbeabletorelyontheresultsoftheirinformationsystems.TheISfunctioncandevelopabadreputationintheorganizationifasystemisknowntoproduceinaccurateinformation.Insuchacase,theinformationsystembecomesawasteoftimeandmoney.Donotbemisledbyawell-formattedreport,orafancyquery,andactivegraphics.Whenyoubegintouseanewinformationsystem,beskeptical.Cross-checktheinformationyouarereceiving.18Accurate18TimelyGoodinformationistimely—producedintimeforitsintendeduse.Amonthlyreportthatarrives6weekslateismostlikelyuseless.Aninformationsystemthattellsyounottoextendcredittoacustomerafteryouhaveshippedthegoodsisunhelpfulandfrustrating.NoticethattimelinesscanbemeasuredagainstacalendarYouneedtogiveappropriateandrealistictimelinessneeds.Insomecases,developingsystemsthatprovideinformationinnearrealtimeismuchmoredifficultandexpensivethanproducinginformationafewhourslater.Ifyoucangetbywithinformationthatisafewhoursold,saysoduringtherequirementsspecificationphase.19Timely19Consideranexample.Supposeyouworkinmarketingandyouneedtobeabletoassesstheeffectivenessofnewonlineadprograms.YouwantaninformationsystemthatnotonlywilldeliveradsovertheWeb,butthatalsowillenableyoutodeterminehowfrequentlycustomersclickonthoseads.Determiningclickratiosinnearrealtimewillbeveryexpensive;savingthedatainabatchandprocessingitsomehourslaterwillbemucheasierandcheaper.Ifyoucanlivewithinformationthatisadayortwoold,thesystemwillbeeasierandcheapertoimplement.20Consideranexample.SupposeyRelevantInformationshouldberelevantbothtothecontextandtothesubject.Consideringcontext,you,theCEO,needinformationthatissummarizedtoanappropriatelevelforyourjob.Alistofthehourlywageofeveryemployeeinthecompanyisunlikelytobeuseful.Morelikely,youneedaveragewageinformationbydepartmentordivision.21Relevant21JustBarelySufficientInformationneedstobesufficientforthepurposeforwhichitisgenerated,butjustbarelyso.Weliveinaninformationage;oneofthecriticaldecisionsthateachofushastomakeeachdayiswhatinformationtoignore.Thehigheryouriseintomanagement,themoreinformationyouwillbegiven,and,becausethereisonlysomuchtime,themoreinformationyouwillneedtoignore.So,informationshouldbesufficient,butjustbarely.22JustBarelySufficient22WorthItsCostInformationisnotfree.Therearecostsfordevelopinganinformationsystem,costsofoperatingandmaintainingthatsystem,andcostsofyourtimeandsalaryforreadingandprocessingtheinformationthesystemproduces.Forinformationtobeworthitscost,anappropriaterelationshipmustexistbetweenthecostofinformationanditsvalue.Informationsystemsshouldbesubjecttothesamefinancialanalysestowhichotherassetsaresubjected.23WorthItsCost23信息的基本特征真实性。真实性是信息的第一性，不符合事实的表述没有价值。(2)增值性。信息的增值性即指人们通过利用信息，可以获得效益。可以从时间、内容和形式三个维度，确定人们对信息的需求，从而来确定信息的价值。准确性衡量信息的真实性的程度相关性衡量信息是否能很好地反映用户所关心事物运动的状态和方式，使用户通过信息把握或控制事物的发展完整性衡量信息所包含的内容是否完整地反映用户所关心事物运动的状态和方式。信息的表现形式有多种，例如表格、图形、文字等，而图形又分多种。而选择表现形式需要考虑维清晰性和详尽性。同样一种信息，选择的表现形式不同，信息产生的价值也会不同。及时性反映信息是否能及时提供给相关的用户，新颖性则测量信息是否是及时更新的。24信息的基本特征准确性衡量信息的真实性的程度信息的表现形式（3）抽象性必须区分信息的载体与内容，信息有可能在不同的载体之间转化与传递。需要注意的是，人们往往将主要注意力集中在信息的载体（例如计算机网络的建设）或技术手段上，而忽略了信息的内容。（4）

不对称性由于各种原因的限制（如专业知识、市场需求、制作技术等），在市场中交易的双方所掌握的信息是极不相等的，买卖双方掌握信息的程度各有不同，这就形成了信息的不对称。25（3）抽象性25（5）滞后性信息滞后于数据。信息的滞后时间包括信息的间隔时间和加工时间。信息的间隔时间是指获取同一信息的必要间隔时间。信息的加工时间是指获取某信息由数据加工所需要的加工时间。管理信息系统的一个基本目标就是要缩短数据的加工时间。26（5）滞后性26（6）有效性信息的增值性只表现在一定的时间内。过了这个时期，信息就不会产生效益，即信息的有效性。信息如同一种产品，具有其生命周期。信息的生命周期即指信息从产生、收集、加工、传输、使用到失效的全过程。27（6）有效性27（7）共享性信息不同于与其他物质资源，它具有共享性，不具有独占性，在同一时间可以为多人所掌握。这种共享是一种非零和的共享，即共享的诸方受益、受损是不确定的，各方因同一信息而获得的增值并不等于少数方独占该信息所获得的增值。28（7）共享性28（8）可扩散性信息的可扩散具有两种效应：正效应是利于知识的扩散，节省人力、资金等资源的消耗；负效应造成信息的贬值，不利于信息的保密。要注重信息的保密性，减少信息的扩散的负效应。在企业内部，要充分利用信息的共享性，在信息有效的时间内，在内部快速扩散，对外部则应该抑制信息扩散的负效应。29（8）可扩散性29（9）信息的粒度（granularity）粒度用来度量信息的详细程度。为信息的使用者提供不同粒度的信息有助于他们能更好地把握事物运动的状态和方式。柳州产品系列产品组规格F5M42地区国外国内大区省份城市时间年-季-月-周-日4G63MPI4G64R5M214G63CARB上海广州一季二季三季四季销售量沈阳长春福州30（9）信息的粒度（granularity）柳州产品1.1.3InformationSystemsandInformationTechnology:CoreConceptsAninformationsystem(IS)collects,processes,stores,analyzes,anddistributesinformationforaspecificpurposeorobjective.Input.Dataandinformationaboutbusinesstransactionsarecapturedorcollectedbypoint-of-sale(POS)scannersandWebsitesandreceivedbyotherinputdevices.Processing.Dataistransformed,converted,andanalyzedforstorageortransfertoanoutputdevice.Output.Data,information,reports,andsoonaredistributedtodigitalscreensorhardcopy(paper),sentasaudio,ortransferredtootherISsviacommunicationnetworks.Feedback.Afeedbackmechanismmonitorsandcontrolsoperations.311.1.3InformationSystemsandManagementInformationSystems(MIS)thedevelopmentanduseofinformationsystemsthathelpbusinessesachievetheirgoalsandobjectives.Thisdefinitionhasthreekeyelements:developmentanduse,informationsystems,andbusinessgoalsandobjectives.32ManagementInformationSystemsInformationSystem(IS)isanassemblyofhardware,software,data,procedures,andpeoplethatproducesinformation.FiveComponentsofanInformationSystem33InformationSystem(IS)isanFigure1-434Figure1-434Thesefivecomponentsaresymmetrical.Theoutermostcomponents,hardwareandpeople,arebothactors;theycantakeactions.Thesoftwareandprocedurecomponentsarebothsetsofinstructions:Softwareisinstructionforhardware,andproceduresareinstructionsforpeople.Finally,dataisthebridgebetweenthecomputersideontheleftandthehumansideontheright.Now,whenweautomateabusinessprocess,wetakeworkthatpeoplearedoingbyfollowingproceduresandmoveitsothatcomputerswilldothatwork,followinginstructionsinthesoftware.Thus,theprocessofautomationisaprocessofmovingworkfromtherightsidetotheleft.35ThesefivecomponentsaresymmAbusinessisnotalive,anditcannotact.Itisthepeoplewithinabusinesswhosell,buy,design,produce,finance,market,account,andmanage.So,informationsystemsexisttohelppeoplewhoworkinabusinesstoachievethegoalsandobjectivesofthatbusiness.36Abusinessisnotalive,andiBusinessProcessesInformationProcessingActivitiesBusinessValueManagementActivitiesSupplyChainManagementEnterpriseManagementCustomerManagementKnowledgeManagementDataCollectionandStorageTransformationIntoBusinessSystemsDisseminationPlanningCoordinatingControllingModelingandDecisionMakingFirmProfitabilityandStrategicPositionABusinessPerspectiveonInformationSystemsFigure1-537BusinessProcessesInformationInformationsystemsaremorethancomputersORGANIZATIONSTECHNOLOGYMANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSFigure1-638InformationsystemsaremoretORGANIZATIONSInformationsystemsareanintegralpartoforganizations.Thekeyelementsofanorganizationareitspeople,structure,businessprocesses,politics,andculture.Organizationsarecomposedofdifferentlevelsandspecialties.Expertsareemployedandtrainedfordifferentfunctions.Themajorbusinessfunctionsperformedbybusinessorganizations,consistofsalesandmarketing,manufacturingandproduction,financeandaccounting,andhumanresources.39ORGANIZATIONS39Anorganizationcoordinatesworkthroughastructuredhierarchyandthroughitsbusinessprocesses.Thehierarchyarrangespeopleinapyramidstructureofrisingauthorityandresponsibility.Theupperlevelsofthehierarchyconsistofmanagerial,professional,andtechnicalemployees,whereasthelowerlevelsconsistofoperationalpersonnel.40AnorganizationcoordinateswoMostorganizations’businessprocessesincludeformalrulesthathavebeendevelopedoveralongtimeforaccomplishingtasks.Theserulesguideemployeesinavarietyofprocedures.Manybusinessprocessesareincorporatedintoinformationsystems.Organizationsrequiremanydifferentkindsofskillsandpeople.Inadditiontomanagers,knowledgeworkersdesignproductsorservicesandcreatenewknowledge,anddataworkersprocesstheorganization’spaperwork.Productionorserviceworkersactuallyproducetheorganization’sproductsorservices.Eachorganizationhasauniqueculture,orfundamentalsetofassumptions,values,andwaysofdoingthings,thathasbeenacceptedbymostofitsmembers.Partsofanorganization’sculturecanalwaysbefoundembeddedinitsinformationsystems.41Mostorganizations’businesspMANAGEMENTManagement’sjobistomakesenseoutofthemanysituationsfacedbyorganizations,makedecisions,andformulateactionplanstosolveorganizationalproblems.Managersallocatethehumanandfinancialresourcestocoordinatetheworkandachievesuccess.Butmanagersmustdomorethanmanagewhatalreadyexists.Theymustalsocreatenewproductsandservices.Asubstantialpartofmanagementresponsibilityiscreativeworkdrivenbynewknowledgeandinformation.Informationtechnologycanplayapowerfulroleinredirectingandredesigningtheorganization.42MANAGEMENT42Managerialrolesanddecisionsvaryatdifferentlevelsoftheorganization.Seniormanagersmakelong-rangestrategicdecisionsaboutwhatproductsandservicestoproduce.Middlemanagerscarryouttheprogramsandplansofseniormanagement.Operationalmanagersareresponsibleformonitoringthefirm’sdailyactivities.Eachlevelofmanagementhasdifferent

informationneedsandinformationsystemrequirements.43ManagerialrolesanddecisionsTECHNOLOGYInformationtechnologyisoneofmanytoolsmanagersusetocopewithchange.ComputerhardwareSoftwarestoragetechnologyCommunicationstechnology44TECHNOLOGY44TheInternethascreatedanew“universal”technologyplatformonwhichtobuildallsortsofnewproducts,services,strategies,andbusinessmodels.Thissametechnologyplatformhas

internal

uses,providingtheconnectivitytolinkdifferentsystemsandnetworkswithinthefirm.InternalcorporatenetworksbasedonInternettechnologyarecalledintranets.Privateintranetsextendedtoauthorizedusersoutsidetheorganizationarecalledextranets,andfirmsusesuchnetworkstocoordinatetheiractivitieswithotherfirmsformakingpurchases,collaboratingondesign,andotherinterorganizationalwork.45TheInternethascreatedanewInformationTechnology(IT)referstoallofthecomputer-basedinformationsystemsusedbyorganizationsandtheirunderlyingtechnologies（theproducts,methods,inventions,andstandardsthatareusedforthepurposeofproducinginformation.）Informationtechnologiesandsystemsarerevolutionizingtheoperationoffirms,industries,andmarkets.46InformationTechnology(IT)46ThebusinessvalueofITisdeterminedisdeterminedbytherelationshipsamongISs,people,andbusinessprocesses—allofwhichareinfluencedstronglybyorganizationalculture.47ThebusinessvalueofITisdeMajorCapabilitiesofISsandSupportedBusinessObjectivesPerformhigh-speed,high-volume,numericalcomputations•Providefast,accuratecommunicationandcollaborationunrestrictedbytimeandlocation•StorehugeamountsofinformationthatisaccessibleviaprivatenetworksandtheInternet•Automatesemiautomaticbusinessprocessesandmanuallydonetasks.•EnableautomationofroutinedecisionmakingandfacilitatecomplexdecisionmakingIScapabilitiessupportthesebusinessobjectives:•Improveproductivity(productivityisameasurementortheratioofinputstooutputs)•Reducecostsandwaste•Improvetheabilitytomakeinformeddecisions•Facilitatecollaboration•Enhancecustomerrelationships•Developnewanalyticcapabilities•Providefeedbackonperformance48MajorCapabilitiesofISsandCONTEMPORARYAPPROACHESTOINFORMATIONSYSTEMSTechnicalApproachesBehavioralApproachesManagementScienceOperationsResearchSociologyEconomicsComputerSciencePsychologyThetechnicalapproachtoinformationsystemsemphasizesmathematicallybasedmodelstostudyinformationsystem.Computerscienceisconcernedwithestablishingtheoriesofcomputability,methodsofcomputation,andmodelsofefficientdatastorageandaccess..Managementscienceemphasizesthedevelopmentofmodelsfordecision-makingandmanagementpractices.Behavioralissuesincludestrategicbusinessintegration,design,implementation,utilization,andmanagement.Operationsresearchfocusesonmathematicaltechniquesforoptimizingselectedparametersoforganizations,suchastransportation,inventorycontrol,,andtransactioncosts.49CONTEMPORARYAPPROACHESTOINF1.2PositioningITtoOptimizePerformanceDuringthe2010s,managersareexploringnewstrategiestoimprovebusinessperformance,orprofitability.Oneapproachistodeveloptheagilityneededtoidentifyandcaptureopportunitiesmorequicklythanrivals.Organizationscanbenefitfromopportunitiesmadepossiblebyhighperformancemobiledevicesandhigh-speedmobiletelecommunicationnetworks.Examplesarethe3Gand4Gnetworksofcellularserviceproviders.Mobiletechnologyhastorndownthewallsbetweenourbusiness,professional,andpersonallives.501.2PositioningITtoOptimizeOrganizationsdependonITtobeabletoadapttomarketconditionsandgainacompetitiveedge.Thatcompetitiveadvantageisshort-livedifcompetitorsquicklyduplicateit.Noadvantageisverylong-lasting.Therefore,companiesneedtoupgrade,develop,and/ordeploynewISstoremaininthecompetitivegame.Duringthelastdecade,companieswereadaptingtosocialnetworking,andbecameextensionsofbusinessestoreachcustomers,prospects,andbusinesspartners.51OrganizationsdependonITtoAbusinessmodelisamethodofdoingbusinessbywhichacompanycangeneratesalesrevenueandprofittosustainitself.Themodelspellsouthowthecompanycreatesoraddsvalueintermsofthegoodsorservicesthecompanyproduces.Somemodelsareverysimple.Forexample,Applemakesandsellscellphonesandgeneratesprofitfromthesesales.Ontheotherhand,aTVstationprovidesfreebroadcasting.Itssurvivaldependsonacomplexmodelinvolvingfactorssuchasadvertisersandcontentproviders.52AbusinessmodelisamethodoAcomprehensivebusinessmodeliscomposedofthesesixelements:1.Adescriptionofallproductsandservicesthebusinesswilloffer2.Adescriptionofthebusinessprocessrequiredtomakeanddelivertheproductsandservices3.Adescriptionofthecustomerstobeservedandthecompany’srelationshipswiththesecustomers,includingwhatconstitutesvaluefromcustomers’perspective(customers’valueproposition)53AcomprehensivebusinessmodelAcomprehensivebusinessmodeliscomposedofthesesixelements:4.Alistoftheresourcesrequiredandtheidentificationofwhichonesareavailable,whichwillbedevelopedin-house,andwhichwillneedtobeacquired5.Adescriptionoftheorganization’ssupplychain,includingsuppliersandotherbusinesspartners6.Adescriptionoftherevenuesexpected(revenuemodel),anticipatedcosts,sourcesoffinancing,andestimatedprofitability(financialviability)54Acomprehensivebusinessmodel1.3BusinessPerformanceManagementandMeasurementPerformanceismeasuredbyhowwellthosegoalsandobjectivesaremet.Despitehowsimplethissounds,measuringbusiness(ororganizational)performanceisextremelychallenging.Howdoyoumanageperformance?Assumethatacompany’sgoalsareincreasedsalesandimprovedcustomerloyalty.Salesrevenueisarathereasy-to-calculatequantitativemetric.Incontrast,customerloyaltyisaqualitativemetricandprobablyhasalongertimedimension.Youcanimmediatelyknowhowmuchcustomershavepurchasedonaparticularday,butnothowmanycustomersyou’velostthatday.551.3BusinessPerformanceManagInordertomanageperformance,twofundamentalrequirementsare:（1）Beingabletomeasure.Youcannotmanagewhatyoucannotmeasure.Statedinreverse,ifyoucannotmeasureaprocess,youcannotmanageorcontrolit.Tobereliable,“measuring”needstobefact-basedand/ordata-driven.Otherwise,managersaremakingdecisionsbasedonconditionsofuncertainty.Themoreaccurateandtimelythedata,thebettertheabilitytomeasure.56Inordertomanageperformance（2）Knowingthatyourindicatorismeasuringtherightthing.Measuringperformancerequires:IdentifyingthemostmeaningfulmeasuresofperformanceBeingabletomeasurethemcorrectlySelectingthesetofmeasuresthatprovidesaholisticindicatoroftotalbusinessperformanceIdentifyingwhoshouldreceivethereportsandinwhattimeframe57（2）KnowingthatyourindicatorPerformanceMeasurementProcess.Measuringperformanceisamultistepcyclicalprocess.Themajorstepsinbusinessperformancemanagementare:Step1.Decideondesiredperformancelevels.Namely:Whatdoesthecompanywanttoachieve?Suchtargetsaredecideduponandexpressedasgoalsandobjectives,basedontheorganization’smission.Also,specificmetricsshouldbesetfordesirableandmeasurableperformancetopicssothatthecompanycanevaluateitssuccess.Step2.Determinehowtoattaintheperformancelevels.Theissueis:Howtogetthere?Thisisdeterminedbythecorporatestrategiesandspecificshort-,medium-,andlong-termplans.58PerformanceMeasurementProcesStep3.Periodicallyassesswheretheorganizationstandswithrespecttoitsgoals,objectives,andmeasures.Theissuehereistofind:Howarewedoing?ThisisaccomplishedbymonitoringperformanceandcomparingittothevaluessetinStep1.Step4.Adjustperformanceand/orgoals.Ifperformanceistoolow—thatis,thereisanegativegapbetweenwherewewanttobeandwhereweare—correctiveactionsneedtobetaken:Howdoweclosethegap?59Step3.PeriodicallyassesswhBusinessEnvironmentalPressures.Thebusinessenvironmentconsistsofavarietyoffactors—societal,legal,political,technological,andeconomic.ImpactofBusinessEnvironmentFactors.Thebusinessenvironmentfactorscanimpacttheperformanceofindividuals,departments,andentireorganizations.Somefactorscreateconstraints,whileotherscostagreatdealofmoneyordiverteffortsawayfromthebusiness.NewlawsandregulationsalmostalwaysinvolvetheimplementationofnewISsforcompliance,especiallyduringthefirstyearsaftertheygointoeffect.60BusinessEnvironmentalPressur616162621.4StrategicPlanningandCompetitiveModelsIngeneral,strategicanalysisisthescanningandreviewofthepolitical,social,economic,andtechnicalenvironmentoftheorganization.Thepurposeofthisanalysisoftheenvironment,competition,andcapacityistolearnaboutthestrengths,weaknesses,opportunities,andthreats(SWOT)oftheexpansionplanbeingconsidered.SWOTanalysis,asitiscalled,involvestheevaluationofstrengthsandweaknesses,whichareinternalfactors,andopportunitiesandthreats,whichareexternalfactors.631.4StrategicPlanningandComExamplesare:Strengths:reliableprocesses;agility;motivatedworkforceWeaknesses:lackofexpertise;competitorswithbetterITinfrastructureOpportunities:adevelopingmarket;abilitytocreateanewmarketorproductThreats:pricewarsorotherfiercereactionbycompetitors;obsolescence64Examplesare:64SWOTisonlyaguideandshouldbeusedtogetherwithothertoolssuchasPorter’sfive-forcesanalysismodel.SWOTanalysisisoftendoneattheoutsetofthestrategicplanningprocessStrategicplanningisaseriesofprocessesinwhichanorganizationselectsandarrangesitsbusinessesorservicestokeeptheorganizationviableevenwhenunexpectedeventsdisruptoneormoreofitsbusinesses,markets,products,orservices.Strategicplanninginvolvesenvironmentalscanningandprediction,orSWOTanalysis,foreachbusinessrelativetocompetitorsinthatbusiness’smarketorproductline.65SWOTisonlyaguideandshoulStrategydefinestheplanforhowabusinesswillachieveitsmission,goals,andobjectives.Itspecifiesthenecessaryfinancialrequirements,budgets,andresources.Strategyaddressesfundamentalissuessuchasthecompany’spositioninitsindustry,itsavailableresourcesandoptions,andfuturedirections.Astrategyaddressesquestionssuchas:Whatisthelong-termdirectionofourbusiness?Whatistheoverallplanfordeployingourresources?Whattrade-offsarenecessary?Whatresourceswillitneedtoshare?Whatisourpositionvis-à-viscompetitors?Howdoweachievecompetitiveadvantageoverrivalsinordertoachieveormaximizeprofitability?66StrategydefinestheplanforPORTER’SCOMPETITIVEFORCESMODELANDSTRATEGIESMichaelPorter’scompetitiveforcesmodel,alsocalledthefive-forcesmodel,hasbeenusedtodevelopstrategiesforcompaniestoidentifytheircompetitiveedge.ThemodelalsodemonstrateshowITcanenhancecompetitivenessAccordingtoPorter’scompetitiveforcesmodel,therearefivemajorforcesinanindustrythataffectthedegreeofcompetitionandthusimpactprofitmarginsandultimatelyprofitability.Theseforcesinteract,soalthoughyouwillreadaboutthemindividually,itistheirinteractionthatdeterminestheindustry’sprofitpotential.67PORTER’SCOMPETITIVEFORCESMOForexample,whileprofitmarginsforpizzeriasmaybesmall,theeaseofenteringthatindustrydrawsnewentrantsintoit.Conversely,profitmarginsfordeliveryservicesmaybelarge,butthecostoftheITtosupporttheserviceisahugebarriertoentryintothemarket.68Forexample,whileprofitmargAnexplanationofthefiveindustry(market)forces.69AnexplanationofthefiveindThreatofentryofnewcompetitors.Industrieswithlargeprofitmarginsattractmorecompetitors(calledentrants)intothemarketthandoindustrieswithsmallprofitmargins.It’sthesameprinciplethatappliestojobs—peopleareattractedtohigher-payingjobs,providedthattheycanmeetoracquirethecriteriaforthatjob.Inordertogainmarketshare,entrantstypicallysellatlowerpricesoroffersomeincentive.Thosecompaniesalreadyintheindustrymaybeforcedtodefendtheirmarketsharebyloweringprices,whichreducestheirprofitmargin.Thus,thisthreatputsdownwardpressureonprofitmarginsbydrivingpricesdown.70ThreatofentryofnewcompetiThisforcealsoreferstothestrengthofthebarrierstoentryintoanindustry,whichishoweasyitistoenteranindustry.Thethreatofentryislower(lesspowerful)whenexistingcompa