英语修辞学省公开课一等奖全国示范课微课金奖课件

EnglishRhetoricBySongPingfeng

ChapterTwoBriefHistoryofWesternRhetoric

1/37Page21.

Classicalrhetoric2.RhetoricintheMiddleAges3.RhetoricintheRenaissance4.NewClassicRhetoric5.ContemporaryRhetoricContentsofThisChapter2/37Page3TheconceptofrhetoricingeneralAlongwithgrammarandlogicordialectic,rhetoricisoneofthethreeancientartsofdiscourse.Rhetoricnormallyexplainsthethreeartsofusinglanguageasameanstopersuade(logos,pathos,andethos),aswellasthefivecanonsofRhetoric:memory,invention,delivery,style,andarrangement.FromancientGreecetothelate19thCentury,itwasacentralpartofWesterneducation,fillingtheneedtotrainpublicspeakersandwriterstomoveaudiencestoactionwitharguments.3/37Page41.Classicalrhetoric(5thB.C–5thA.D.)Intheancienttimes,rhetoricevolvedasanimportantart,onethatprovidedtheoratorwiththeforms,means,andstrategiesforpersuadinganaudienceofthecorrectnessoftheorator'sarguments.RhetoricoriginatesfromtheancientGreece.Itprovidestwonecessaryconditionsfortheclassicalrhetoric.1.1Necessaryconditionsofclassicalrhetoric(1)GreekDemocracy:Democracyprovidesanecessaryconditionforthebirthofclassicalrhetoric.TheancientGreeksareauniquepeople.TheybelievedthatindividualsshouldbefreeaslongastheyactedwithinthelawsofGreece.Thisallowedthemtheopportunitytoexcelanydirectiontheychose.Individualitywasthebasisoftheirsociety.TheabilitytostriveforexcellencewaswhatAtheniansdearlybelievedin.(2)Greatthinkers/scholars:Therearealotofgreatthinkers/scholarsintheancientGreece,suchasSocrates(苏格拉底),Plato(柏拉图),andAristotle(亚里士多德).TheirgreatWordsandthoughtsarestilltaughtinuniversitiestothisday.Mostofthemaregreatrhetoricians.4/37Page51.2ThesocialandpoliticalorganizationsofAncientGreece:(1)PolisorCity-state:In508B.C.,thecityofAthensbecameoneofthefirstpolis,oroneofthefirstcity-statesinancienttimes.(2)DemocracyandCouncil:In508B.C.,Cleisthenes(克利斯提尼，他将索伦立法改革制订成法律文件，通常被认为是雅典民主政治创建者)institutedanewpoliticalorganizationwherebythecitizenswouldtakeamorecarefulandmoredirectroleinrunningthecity-state.Hecalledthisnewpoliticalorganization“demokratia”,ordemocracyrulebytheentirebodyofcitizens.HecreatedaCouncilofFiveHundredwhichplannedthebusinessofthepublicassemblies.ItwastheCouncilthatprovidedpeopleaplaceofpublicspeaking.5/37Page61.3SophistsandtheirpracticesofrhetoricOutofgrowingdemandforeducationinthe5thcenturyB.B.,Greececalledintoexistenceaclassofteachersknownassophists.Sophistwereaprofessionalclassratherthanaschool,andassuchtheywerescatteredoverGreeceandexhibitedprofessionalrivalries.Thesophistsundertooktoprovideastockofargumentsonanysubject,ortoproveanyposition.Theyboastedoftheirabilitytomaketheworseappearthebetterreason,toprovethatblackiswhite.OnerepresentativeofthemwasGorgias.“Manisthemeasureofallthings.”人类是衡量全部事物标准。6/37Page71.4SomeAncientGreekRhetoriciansandtheirtheory(1).Corax(科拉克斯)CoraxofSyracuseandhisstudentsTisias(蒂西亚斯，有名捉刀人，专门为诉讼者撰写诉状)werethefirstrhetoriciansinhistory.Histheory:thefirstisatheoryofhowargumentsshouldbedevelopedfromprobabilities;thesecondistheirfirstconceptoforganizationofamessage.AccordingtoCorax,legalargumentsshouldconsistoffourparts:introductory,explanation,argumentationandconclusion.(Corax将法律演说分成四个部分：序言，解释，论辩和结论。)7/37Page8Platomaintainedthatrhetoricwastheexpressionoftruthandtheartofrationaldiscourseratherthantheartofeloquentexpression.Hearguedthatclarity,consistencyandnaturalnessweretheonlyfeaturesnecessaryfortheeffectivepresentationofideas.Heassertedthatgenuineeloquencederiveditsforcefromtruthandspontaneity.This,inpart,wasareactiontotheuseofrhetoricalartificebytheSophistsasameansofdeceivingandmanipulatingpeople.(2)Platoandhistheoryaboutrhetoric8/37Page9柏拉图著作中很多地方都表示了对修辞贬斥。在《高尔吉亚篇》中，苏格拉底声称，修辞“创造是这么一个劝服方式：它只制造对正义与非正义看法，却对怎样认识它们毫无教益”（Plato：455a）；修辞家“不需要了解事物真实面目，他只需找到某种方式让那些无知人相信他比真正有知识人更有知识就行了”（459b）。所以，修辞与真理无关，根本不关心真理，甚至带有显著坑骗意味。然而，柏拉图对修辞看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图修辞观念有一个演变过程，其轨迹能够经过比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉图全盘否定修辞态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图态度有了重大改变，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外领域关注应该在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞坑骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变关键场所。在这篇对话中，柏拉图着重探讨了真理（aletheia）与语言（logos）关系。9/37Page10拉斐尔最著名壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来５０多个著名哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包含柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理追求，赞美人类创造力。/NewInfor/html/30370.htm10/37Page11Aristotle,Plato'sstudent(384-322BC)famouslysetforthanextendedtreatiseonrhetoricthatstillrepayscarefulstudytoday.InthefirstsentenceofTheArtofRhetoric,Aristotlesaysthat"rhetoric”isthecounterpartofdialectic.Hemeansthatrhetorichasadomainorscopeofapplicationthatisparalleltobutdifferentfromthedomainorscopeofapplicationofdialectic.Rhetoricisusedinplaceofdialecticwhenwearediscussingcivicissuesinacourtoflaworinalegislativeassembly.Thedomainofrhetoriciscivicaffairsandpracticaldecisionmakingincivicaffairs,nottheoreticalconsiderationsofoperationaldefinitionsoftermsandclarificationofthought–these,forhim,areinthedomainofdialectic.(3).Aristotle(亚里士多德)

andhistheoryaboutrhetoric11/37Page12Aristotleheavilyemphasizesthethreebasicelementsinrhetoric:logos(逻辑),pathos(情感)andethos(人格).Logoscontainsprofoundimplicationsoflogic.Whenappliedtothepracticeofspeakingandwriting,logosreferstotheuseoflogicalreasoningtopersuadetheaudienceorreaders.E.g.TousChinese,learningaforeignlanguageisnotaneasything.Afterall,itisdifferentfromourmothertongue.Otherscanlearnitwell,whynotwe?Effectivelogicalreasoningcomesfromsound（完美）logicalthinking,expressedinrelevantmaterial,properorganization,coherentsentences,andwordsthatappropriatelyconveyone’sintendedmeanings.Examinethefollowingexampletakenfromastudent’scomposition:12/37Page13(1)Informallogic,therearetwobasicapproachesforlogicalreasoning:InductivereasoningandDeductivereasoning

Logos:Formallogicandsyllogism（形式逻辑和三段推理法）a)Whatisdeduction(演绎推理)?Deductionistheinferenceofparticularinstancesbyreferencetoagenerallaworprinciple.(TheNewOxfordDictionaryofEnglish)（演绎推理是由普通原理或规律推出关于特殊情况下结论）Or:Deductionisreasoningfromgeneralprinciplestoparticularcases.e.g.Allmenmustdie.人固有一死。（Majorpremise)Iamaman.我是人。(Minorpremise)ThereforeImustdie.我一定会死。(Conclusion)

13/37Page14b)Whatisinduction（归纳推理）?Inductionistheinferenceofagenerallawfromparticularinstances.(ditto)（归纳推理是由一系列详细事实概括出普通规律）Or:

Inductionisthemethodoflogicreasoningwhichcontainsordiscoversagenerallawfromparticularfactsorexamples.E.g.Goldisaconductor.金是一个导体。

Silverisaconductor.银是一个导体。

Copperisaconductor.铜是一个导体。

Ironisaconductor.铁是一个导体。

Theyareallmetals.它们都是金属。

Allmetalsareconductors.全部金属都是导体。14/37Page15(2)Whatissyllogism（三段推理法）?Syllogismrepresentsdeductivereasoninginapatternconsistingofamajorpremise,aminorpremise,andaconclusion.e.g.Allmetalsareconductors.(Majorpremise)Copperisametal.(Minorpremise)Thereforecopperisaconductor.(Conclusion)Moreexamplesabouttheuseoflogos:96%ofdangerousdriversaremen.93%ofdrunkdriversaremen.81%ofparkingoffendersaremen.Sowhyshouldwomenhavetopaythesameforcarinsurance?（Women’sOwn,July31,1995）15/37Page162.

Pathos:

theuseofemotionalappealstoaltertheaudience'sjudgment.Theeffectsofemotionalappealsincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pityaswellasvariousotherfeelings.Originally,theterm“pathos”referredtotheemotioningeneralwhichaspeakertriedtoarouseintheaudience.Inmodernrhetoric,itrangesfromthestudyofthepsychologyoftheaudienceorreaderstotheapplicationoftechnologytoconvincethembyemotionalappeals(情感魅力).Theeffectsofemotionalappealsincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pityaswellasvariousotherfeelings.Byplayingupon(利用)suchfeelings,thewriterintendstochangethebeliefsandbehaviorofhisorherreaders.

Changesintheconnotationofpathos（情感含义改变）16/37Page17Theuseofemotionalappealsisallaroundus.Itisanessentialelementinadvertising,publicrelations,image-making(塑造形象),andeducation,especiallyin“affectiveeducation”(情感教育).Inmodernmanagement,thepracticeofwhatiscalled“emotioninvestment”(感情投资)isalsoassociatedwithpathos.Forinstance,themanagerrememberstoprepareagiftforeachmemberofthestaffonhisorherbirthday.Effectiveappealstotheemotionsdependupontheskilfuloftenwittyhandlingoflanguage,frequentlyaccompaniedby“exposure”（揭露）and“eloquence”（口才）.Pathosinusetoday（当今所用情感）17/37Page18(1).“Exposure”evokesmoralindignation(义愤，不平)sometimeshumorously,sometimesangrilybycondemningtheunjustrealityorrevealingthedifferencebetweenhowthingsshouldbeandhowtheyare.ThefollowingisaletterthatshowshowanAmericanmotherresortsto(采取)thisskilltomoveotherstostandagainsttheUSunjustwaragainstVietnam:18/37Page19Iammorethanangry.Ididnotgivebirthtomyoneandonlysontohavehimsnatchedawayfromme18yearslater.Mychildhasbeenlovedandcaredforandtaughtrightfromwrongandwillnotbefedintoanyegomaniac’s(极端利己主义者)warmachine.Our18-to25-year-oldshavenotbroughtthistoworldtoitspresentsorrystate.Menovertheageof35,downthroughthecenturies,havebroughtushere,andwewomenhavebeensilentaccord.Well,thisisonewoman,onemother,whosaysNo.Ididnotgothroughthemagnificentagonyofchildbirthtohavethatgloriousyounglifesnuffedout.Untilthepresidents,premiers,supremerulers,politburos(政治局),senatorsandcongressmenoftheworldarereadytophysically,asopposedtoverbally,leadtheworldintocombat,theycanbloodywellforgetmychild.Unitemothers!Don’tthrowyoursonsanddaughtersaway.Sometime,somewhere,womenmustsayno.No.No.No.No.No.Nevermychild.19/37Page20CommentsMother’sloveforchildrenisprofound,anduniversal.Thewriteroftheletterisamotherherself,andtherefore,herappeal(呼吁)hasaspecialeffectinarousingthesympathyofothermothers.

MoreExamplesabouttheuseofpathos:Isn’tittimeforyourlifetobeeasier?（电脑广告）Isherskinreallythisbeautiful?(Maxfactor粉底霜广告)Thisiswhatthebestpeopleuse.（化装品广告）聪明妈妈会用锌。（某补锌产品广告）Wartodayisdifferent.Schoolsandhospitalcommunitiesareattackedasstrategictargets.Childrendie.Childrensuffer…Butiftheyremainoutofsightandoutofmind,ourbesteffortswillfallfarshortoftheirneeds.Willtheworldhelp?这则广告号召大家参加帮助儿童活动以克服战争留给儿童痛苦。20/37Page21(2)“Eloquence”referstolanguageusedpowerfullyandfluentlytoappealtopeople’snobleremotionsthesenseofhonor,loveofone’scountryandhometown,desiretoreachtowardvirtue(到达效果).Eloquenceisoftenusedemotively,toexpressone’semotionsandevokethesympathyoftheaudienceonsolemnoccasionsorissuesofgreatsignificance.Inthisaspect,thespeechmadebyMartinLutherKing,JR.（马丁.路德.金）,onAugust28,1963,attheMarchonWashington(在向华盛顿行进路上),canberegardedasafinesampleof“theemotionalcrescendo(=climax高潮)ofanemotionalday”21/37Page223.Ethos:

howthecharacter(品质)andcredibilityofaspeakercaninfluenceanaudiencetoconsiderhim/hertobebelievable.

Inordinaryspeechorwriting,ethosreferstothepersonalstanding,academicauthority,andmoralqualitiesofthewriterorspeaker,usedtoguaranteeorevenraisethewriter’sorspeaker’scredibility(可信度)andacceptability(可接收性)intheeyesofthereadersoraudience.Forinstance,whenamagazineclaimsthatAnMITprofessorpredictsthattheroboticeraiscomingin2050,theuseofbig-name"MIT"(aworld-renownedAmericanuniversityfortheadvancedresearchinmath,science,andtechnology)establishesthe"strong"credibility.22/37Page23Thefollowingareafewcasesindicating“ethos”inpractice:a.Inanthologies(诗歌)ortextbooks,thereisusuallyabriefaccountofeachtextanditsauthor,whichtendstohelpreaderstostudyitandtoincreasetheirinterestinstudyingit.This,infact,canberegardedasanapplicationof“ethos”.b.Abookusuallyhasaprefaceanditisalmostalwayswrittenbyanauthoritativesource.Thepurposeisinevitablytoraisethesocial,literaryoracademicstandardofthebook,forthereisalwaysapositiveintroductionandfavorablecommentonthepublication.Inaddition,thebiding(装订)andlayout(版面设计)ofabook,aphotoandanintroductionabouttheauthorareallassociatedwithethos.23/37Page24c.Thetitles,positions,address,fax(电传)andtelephonenumbersonone’snamecardallhavesomethingtodowithethos,whichnotonlyhelppeoplecommunicatebuttheyalsoprovidecredibility.d.Ataconference,thechairperson’sintroductionofeachspeakerisalsomeanttoraisethesocial,personalandacademicstatusofthespeaker,andifthespeakergivestheaudienceastrikingimpressionbyhisopeningremarks,hewillprobablybesuccessfulinhisspeech.24/37Page25(3).Aristotle(亚里士多德)andhistheoryaboutrhetoricInhisRhetoric,Aristotleclassifiedoratory雄辩演说intothreecategories:political(议政演说),

forensic(法学演说)andceremonial(宣德演说).

Politicaloratoryurgestheaudiencetodoornottodosomething;forensicoratoryattacksordefendssomebody;theceremonialoratorypraisesorcensussomebody.25/37Page261.5SomeRomanrhetoriciansandtheirtheory(1)CiceroandhistheoryCicerowasastatesmanandphilosopher.ForCicero,rhetoricisabranchofpoliticalscience.Hesynthesized(综合,合成)therhetoricofPlato,IsocratesandAristotle.HedividedAristotle’ssectionontheproofsintoseparatecategoriesandexpandedthepartsofanargumentfromfourtosix:1)Exordium(introduction);2)narratio(adiscussionofwhathasoccurredtogeneratetheissuetoberesolved);3)partitio(adivisionoftheargumentoroutlineofthepointstobeproven);4)confirmatio(proofsfororconfirmationoftheargument);5)refutatio(proofsdisprovingtheopponent’sarguments);6)conclusio(areviewoftheargumentandafinalappealtotheaudience)Ciceroalsosuggestedthreelevelsofstyle:high,middle,andlowwhichwereintendedrespectivelytomove,delight,andteachtheaudience.26/37Page27QuintilianfurtherexpandedCicero’srhetoricandemphasizedtheideathatagoodspeakermustbeagoodman.Rhetorshouldbebroadlyeducated.(2)QuintilianandhistheoryQuintilianandCiceromodifiedanddevelopedAristotle’sconceptionofrhetoric.Theirgreatestcontributiontoclassicalrhetoricisthetheoryof“fiveArts”or“FiveCannons”:1)inventio(invention);2)dispositio(arrangement);3)elocutio(style);4)memoria(memory);5)pronuntiatio(delivery)27/37Page281).Inventionisaboutthediscoveryofvalidorseeminglyvalidarguments,mainlyconcernswho,what,when,where,howandwhy.Thisistheartofdiscoveringameansforfindingargumentsonanytopic.2).Arrangementisabouthowtoorganizetheproofseffectively.Thisisthemethodoforganizinganargument.3).Styleisaboutdictionandtheorganizationofphrase,i.e.,abouteffectivesentences,clarity,forceandbeautyandusingfiguresofspeech.28/37Page294).Memoryistheartofcommittingthespeechtomemorybymnemonicdevices.Amnemonicreliesnotonlyonrepetitiontorememberfacts,butalsooncreatingassociationsamongeasy-to-rememberconstructsandlistsofdata.5).Deliveryistheartofspeakingconcerningthespeakers’pose,tone,gesture,facialexpression,andsoforth.29/37Page30SummaryoftheClassicalRhetoric(1)ClassicalrhetoricisthetheoreticalsourceoftheWesternrhetoric.Itexertsgreatinfluenceoverthedevelopmentofrhetoricinalllaterhistoricalperiods.SomescholarscommentthattheearlyrhetoricinEuropeancountriesafterclassicaltimescontainfeworiginalideas,theyweremerelyreproductionofclassicalrhetoric.(2)themostinfluentialrhetoriciansofclassicaltimesareAristotle,CiceroandQuintilian.30/37Page312.RhetoricintheMiddleAges1).Socialcondition2).MajorachievementsTheearlyMiddleAgesareoftencalledthe“DarkAges”becausethegreatcivilizationsofGreeceandRomehadfallen.LifeinEuropeduringtheMiddleAgeswasveryhard.Fewpeoplecouldreadorwriteandnobodyexpectedconditionstoimprove.Rhetoricbecamebothapracticalartandanacademicsubject.Rhetoricservedtheclergy,whosesermonspersuadedcongregationstoacceptChristianity,andsecularorecclesiasticalcourts.IntheMiddleAges,undergraduatestudentswhopursuedthebachelorofartsdegreestudiedthetrivium(中世纪大学)三学科:grammar,logic,andrhetoric.Thestudyofrhetoricwasdividedintotwoarts:letter-writingandpreahcing.(2)Stylebegantoassumegreaterimportance,togetherwithdeliverydominatingtheotherfourcannonsofclassicalrhetoric.31/37Page323.RhetoricintheRenaissanceRenaissancerhetoricianscanbedividedintothreegroups:(1)TheTraditionalists:continuetostudythefiveartsofrhetoric.RepresentativeswereDesideriusErasmusandThomasWilson.ThomasWilsonwrotethefirstEnglishrhetoricbookArteofRhetorique,whichmarksthestartsofEnglishRhetoric.(2)TheFigurists:subordinatelogictorhetoric,emphasizetheimportanceofstyle.(3)TheRamists:subordinaterhetorictologic.Ramistrhetoricintensifiestheseparationbetweenthefiveartsandtheimportanceoftheirsequence.Theydi