计算机英语（高等院校计算机相关专业）全套教学课件

全套可编辑PPT课件共12章，包括：计算机概述、计算机系统结构、计算机软件、操作系统、编程和语言、数据库、计算机网络、因特网、计算机安全、云计算、物联网和电子商务。1WhatisaComputer2History3Categories4FutureDevelopmentsLeadin

Theword“computer”isdefinitelynotunfamiliartoeveryone.Everydayweencounterdifferenttypesandsizesofcomputers.Theyarewidelyusedinbusiness,government,education,healthcare,andalmostallotherfields.Undoubtedly,computersarevaluabletools.Withoutitsdevelopment,themodernworldofhightechnologycouldnothavecomeabout.1WhatisaComputer

Acomputerisanelectronicmachine,operatingunderthecontrolofinstructionsstoredinitsownmemory,whichcanacceptdata(input),manipulatethedataaccordingtospecifiedrules(process),produceresults(output),andstoretheresultsforfutureuse.[1]Dataisacollectionofunorganizedfacts,whichcanincludewords,numbers,images,andsounds.Computersmanipulateandprocessdatatocreateinformation.Dataenteringintoacomputeriscalledinput.Theprocessedresultsarecalledoutput.Acomputercanalsoholddataandinformationforfutureuseinanareacalledstorage.Thiscycleofinput,process,output,andstorageiscalledtheinformationprocessingcycle.Apersonwhocommunicateswithacomputerorusestheinformationitgeneratesiscalledauser.Theelectric,electronic,andmechanicalequipmentthatmakesupacomputeriscalledhardware.Softwareistheseriesofinstructionthattellsthehardwarehowtoperformtasks.WhatisaComputer1

Typically,acomputerischaracterizedbyitshighspeed,accuracy,storagecapability,diligence,versatilityandautomation.Itiscapableofperformingcalculationofverylargeamountofdata.Inafewseconds,itcanperformmillionsofcalculation.Inadditiontobeveryfast,computersareveryaccuratewith100%errorfreeofcalculation.Undoubtedly,acomputerhasmuchmorestoragecapacitythanhumanbeings.Itcanstoreanytypeofdatasuchasimages,videos,text,audioandmanyothers.Unlikehumanbeings,acomputerisfreefrommonotony,tirednessandlackofconcentration,whichmeansitcanworkcontinuouslyanddorepeatedworkwithsamespeedandaccuracy.Itisalsoquiteversatile,fromplayingacardgametosolvingacomplexscientificproblem.Besides,itisautomatic,meaningitcanperformthegiventaskwithouthumaninteraction.WhatisaComputer12History

Thehistoryofcomputerdevelopmentisoftenreferredtothedifferentgenerationsofcomputingdevices.Eachgenerationofcomputerischaracterizedbyamajortechnologicaldevelopmentthatfundamentallychangedthewaycomputeroperates,resultinginincreasinglysmaller,cheaper,morepowerfulandmoreefficientandreliabledevices.[2]History2History2FirstGeneration(1944-1958):VacuumTubesSecondGeneration(1959-1963):TransistorsThirdGeneration(1964-1970):IntegratedCircuitsFourthGeneration(1971-present):MicroprocessorsHistory2FirstGeneration(1944-1958):VacuumTubes

Thefirstgenerationcomputersusedvacuumtubesforcircuitryandmagneticdrumsformemory,andwereoftenenormous,takingupentirerooms.Theywereveryexpensivetooperateandinadditiontousingagreatdealofelectricity,generatedalotofheat,whichwasoftenthecauseofmalfunctions.[3]

Thefirstgenerationcomputersreliedonmachinelanguage,thelowest-levelprogramminglanguageunderstoodbycomputers,toperformoperations,andtheycouldonlysolveoneproblematatime.Inputwasbasedonpunchedcardsandpapertape,andoutputwasdisplayedonprintouts.TheENIAC[4]andUNIVACI[5]computersareexamplesoffirst-generationcomputingdevices.History2SecondGeneration(1959-1963):Transistors

Inthesecondgenerationcomputers,transistorsreplacedvacuumtubes.Althoughinventedin1948,thefirstall-transistorcomputerdidnotbecomeavailableuntilthelate1950s.Transistorsaresmallerandlessexpensivethanvacuumtubes,andtheyoperatefasterandproducelessheat.Hence,withsecond-generationcomputers,thesizeandcostofcomputersdecreased,theirspeedincreased,andtheirair-conditioningneedswerereduced.History2ThirdGeneration(1964-1970):IntegratedCircuits

Thetechnologicaldevelopmentthatmarksthethirdgenerationofcomputersistheuseofintegratedcircuits(IC)incomputers.Anintegratedcircuitisapieceofsiliconchipcontainingnumeroustransistors.OneICreplacesmanytransistorsinacomputer,resultinginacontinuationofthetrendsbeguninthesecondgeneration.Thesetrendsincludereducedsize,reducedcost,increasedspeed,andreducedneedforairconditioning.Insteadofpunchedcardsandprintouts,usersinteractedwiththirdgenerationcomputersthroughkeyboardsandmonitorsandinterfacedwithanoperatingsystem,whichallowedthedevicetorunmanydifferentapplicationsatonetimewithacentralprogramthatmonitoredthememory.Computersforthefirsttimebecameaccessibletoamassaudiencebecausetheyweresmallerandcheaperthantheirpredecessors.History2FourthGeneration(1971-present):Microprocessors

Thisgenerationischaracterizedbymoreandmoretransistorsbeingcontainedonasiliconchip.FirsttherewasLargeScaleIntegration(LSI),withtensofthousandsoftransistorsperchip,thencameVeryLargeScaleIntegration(VLSI),withhundredsofthousandsoftransistors.Thetrendcontinuestoday.Themostimportanttrendthatbeganinthefourthgenerationistheproliferationofmicrocomputers.Asmoreandmoretransistorswereputonsiliconchips,iteventuallybecamepossibletoputanentirecomputerprocessor,calledamicroprocessor,onachip.Thefirstcomputertousemicroprocessorsbecameavailableinthemid-1970s.ThefirstmicrocomputerdesignedforpersonalusewastheAltair8800[6],whichwassoldin1975.ThefirstApplecomputer,marketedwiththeIBMPCin1981.Today,microcomputersfaroutnumberallothertypesofcomputerscombined.3CategoriesCategories3

Basedoncostandperformance,computersareusuallyclassifiedintofivecategories:personalcomputers,workstations,minicomputers,mainframecomputersandsupercomputers.Duetorapidlychangingtechnology,thecategoriescannotbedefinedprecisely.Inaddition,thereareothercategoriesthatarenotasusualasthesefive.Forexample,handhelddigitaldevicesaretechnicallycomputers,buttheyarecustomarilyreferredtobyfunctionaspersonaldigitalassistant(PDA),smartphonesandportablemediaplayers.Categories3PersonalComputersNo.1

Apersonalcomputer(PC),alsocalledamicrocomputer,isasmall,relativelyinexpensivecomputerwithamicroprocessorasitscentralprocessingunit(CPU).Itisdesignedtomeetthecomputingneedsofanindividual.Ittypicallyprovidesaccesstoavarietyofcomputingapplications,suchaswordprocessing,photoeditingande-mail.Personalcomputerscanbefurtherclassifiedintodesktopcomputersandportablecomputers.Literally,theformercanbefittednexttoadeskoronadesktopandthelattercanbecarriedaround.Categories3WorkstationsNo.2

Aworkstationisalsoasingleusercomputersystemwhichissimilartoapersonalcomputerbuthasmorepowerfulmicroprocessor.Itisusedforengineeringapplication,desktoppublishing,softwaredevelopment,andothersuchtypesofapplicationswhichrequireamoderateamountofcomputingpowerandrelativelyhighqualitygraphicscapabilities.Workstationsgenerallycomewithalarge,high-resolutiongraphicsscreen,largeamountofRAM,inbuiltnetworksupport,andagraphicaluserinterface(GUI).Categories3

MinicomputersNo.3

Aminicomputerisdesignedtosupportmanytime-sharingterminalsatonce.Operatingfaster,itoftensatisfiesthegeneral-purposecomputingneedsofadepartmentorasmallbusiness.[7]Minicomputerscanoftensupportupto4,000connectedusersatthesametime.Theyalsofrequentlyconnecttootherminicomputersonanetworkanddistributeprocessingamongalltheattachedmachines.Inanetworkenvironment,aminicomputeralsoactsasaserver.Categories3

MainframeComputersNo.4

Amainframecomputer(SeeFigure1-4)isalargeandpowerfulcomputerdesignedforthemostintensivecomputationaltasks.Itcanhandlehundredsorthousandsofconnecteduserssimultaneously.Mainframesaregenerallyusedbybusinessesorgovernmentstoprovidecentralizedstorage,processingandmanagementforlargeamountsofdata.Likeminicomputers,mainframesalsoactasaserverinanetworkenvironment.Categories3SupercomputersNo.5

Supercomputersarelarge,extremelyfast,andexpensivecomputersusedforcomplexorsophisticatedcalculations.Theyhavehundredstothousandsofprocessorsandcanperformtrillionsofcalculationspersecond.Commonusesforsupercomputersincludebreakingcodes,modelingworldwideweathersystemsandsimulatingnuclearexplosions.Figure1-5showsasupercomputer.4FutureDevelopmentsFutureDevelopments4

The“fifth-generation”computerefforttodevelopcomputersthatcansolvecomplexproblemsinwaysthatmighteventuallymeritthedescription“creative”isanothertrendincomputerdevelopment,theidealgoalbeingtrueartificialintelligence.[8]Onepathactivelybeingexploredisparallel-processingcomputing,whichusesmanychipstoperformseveraldifferenttasksatthesametime.Oneimportantparallel-processingapproachistheneuralnetwork,whichmimicsthearchitectureofthenervoussystem.

FutureDevelopments4

Onecontinuingtrendincomputerdevelopmentismicrominiaturization,theefforttocompressmorecircuitelementsintosmallerandsmallerchipspace.Researchersarealsotryingtospeedupcircuitryfunctionsthroughtheuseofsuperconductivity,thephenomenonofdecreasedelectricalresistanceobservedincertainmaterialsatverylowtemperatures.

FutureDevelopments4

Anotherongoingtrendistheincreaseincomputernetworking,whichnowemploystheworldwidedatacommunicationssystemofsatelliteandcablelinkstoconnectcomputersglobally.Thereisalsoagreatdealofresearchintothepossibilityof“optical”computers—hardwarethatprocessesnotpulsesofelectricitybutmuchfasterpulsesoflight.WordsWordselectronic[ɪˌlekˈtrɒnɪk]adj.

电子的input['ɪnpʊt]n./v.

输入output['aʊtpʊt]n./v.输出manipulate[mə'nɪpjʊleɪt]v.

操作storage['stɔːrɪdʒ]

n.

存储electric[ɪ'lektrɪk]adj.

电的；电动的mechanical[mɪ'kænɪk(ə)l]adj.

机械的hardware['hɑːdweə]n.

硬件software['sɔf(t)weə]n.

软件versatility[ˌvɜːsə'tɪlətiː]n.多功能性circuitry['sɜːkɪtrɪ]n.电路malfunction[mæl'fʌŋ(k)ʃ(ə)n]n.

故障printout['prɪntaʊt]n.

打印输出transistor[træn'zɪstə;trɑːn-;-'sɪ-]n.

晶体管monitor['mɒnɪtə]n.显示器Wordsapplication[ˌæplɪ'keɪʃ(ə)n]n.应用accessible[ək'sesɪb(ə)l]adj.可进入的；可存取的predecessor['priːdɪsesə]n.前身；前任microprocessor[maɪkrə(ʊ)'prəʊsesə]n.微处理器proliferation[prəʊˌlɪfə'reɪʃn]n.扩散；大量产生microcomputer['maɪkrə(ʊ)kɒmˌpjuːtə]n.微型计算机outnumber[aʊt'nʌmbə]v.数目超过；比……多workstation['wɜrksteɪʃn]n.工作站minicomputer['mɪnɪkəmˌpjuːtə]n.小型计算机mainframe['meɪnfreɪm]n.主机；大型机supercomputer[ˌsupkəm'pjuːtə;ˌsjuː-]n.超级计算机handheld[hændheld]adj.掌上型的；手持型的customarily['kʌstəm(ə)rɪlɪ]adv.通常，习惯上portable['pɔːtəb(ə)l]adj.手提的，便携式的resolution[rezə'luːʃ(ə)n]n.分辨率Wordsinbuilt['ɪnbɪlt]adj.内置的time-sharing[taɪm-'ʃɛrɪŋ]n.分时共享terminal['tɜːmɪn(ə)l]n.终端distribute[dɪ'strɪbjuːt;'dɪstrɪbjuːt]v.分布server['sɜːvə]n.服务器intensive[ɪn'tensɪv]密集的；加强的computational[kɒmpjʊ'teɪʃənl]计算的centralized['sentrəlaɪzd]adj.集中的calculation[kælkjʊ'leɪʃ(ə)n]n.计算simulate['sɪmjʊleɪt]v.模拟；仿真microminiaturization['maɪkroˌmɪnɪətʃərɪ'zeʃən]n.微小型化，超小型化superconductivity[ˌsupəkɒndʌk'tɪvɪtɪ;ˌsjuː-]n.超导（电）性parallel-processing['pærəlel-prə'sesɪŋ]adj.并行处理mimic['mɪmɪk]v.模仿architecture['ɑːkɪtektʃə]n.体系结构optical['ɒptɪk(ə)l]adj.光学的PhrasesWordscomeabout 发生；出现acollectionof 一批；集……为一体的becharacterizedby

具有……的特征becapableof 能够makeup 组成errorfree 没有误差的takeup 占据vacuumtube 真空管magneticdrum 磁鼓punchedcard 穿孔卡Wordspapertape 纸带integratedcircuit 集成电路siliconchip 硅片interactwith 与……互动；与……相互作用operatingsystem 操作系统electricalresistance 电阻artificialintelligence 人工智能neuralnetwork 神经网络AbbreviationsAbbreviationsENIAC

电子数字积分计算机(ElectronicNumericalIntegratorAndCalculator)UNIVAC通用自动计算机(UniversalAutomaticComputer)IC 集成电路(IntegratedCircuit)LSI 大规模集成电路(LargeScaleIntegration)VLSI 超大规模集成电路(VeryLargeScaleIntegration)IBM 美国国际商用机器公司(InternationalBusinessMachine)PC 个人电脑(PersonalComputer)PDA 个人数字助理(PersonalDigitalAssistant)CPU 中央处理器(CentralProcessingUnit)RAM 随机访问内存(Random-accessMemory)GUI 图形用户界面(GraphicalUserInterface)NotesNotes

Acomputerisanelectronicmachine,operatingunderthecontrolofinstructionsstoredinitsownmemory,whichcanacceptdata(input),manipulatethedataaccordingtospecifiedrules(process),produceresults(output),andstoretheresultsforfutureuse.本句中，operatingunderthecontrolofinstructionsstoredinitsownmemory是一个现在分词短语，修饰和限定Acomputer，在此短语中，storedinitsownmemory是一个过去分词短语，作定语，修饰和限定instructions。whichcanacceptdata(input),manipulatethedataaccordingtospecifiedrules(process),produceresults(output),andstoretheresultsforfutureuse是一个非限制性定语从句，对Acomputer进行补充说明，which指Acomputer，其中accordingtospecifiedrules(process)为方式状语。underthecontrolof的意思是“在……的控制下”。

译文：计算机是一种电子机器，通过储存在其内存中的指令控制运行。计算机能够接收数据（输入），根据指定的规则处理数据（处理），产生结果（输出），并存储结果以便将来使用。01Notes

Eachgenerationofcomputerischaracterizedbyamajortechnologicaldevelopmentthatfundamentallychangedthewaycomputeroperates,resultinginincreasinglysmaller,cheaper,morepowerfulandmoreefficientandreliabledevices.本句中，thatfundamentallychangedthewaycomputeroperates是一个定语从句，修饰和限定amajortechnologicaldevelopment。resultinginincreasinglysmaller,cheaper,morepowerfulandmoreefficientandreliabledevice是一个现在分词短语，作结果状语，其中increasinglysmaller,cheaper,morepowerfulandmoreefficientandreliable为并列前置定语修饰devices。

译文：每一代计算机都以某项重大技术发展为特征，这些重大技术发展从根本上改变了计算机的操作方式，促成了越来越多体积更小、价格更便宜、功能更强大、更高效和更可靠设备的产生。02Notes

Theywereveryexpensivetooperateandinadditiontousingagreatdealofelectricity,generatedalotofheat,whichwasoftenthecauseofmalfunctions.

本句中，whichwasoftenthecauseofmalfunctions是一个非限制性定语从句，修饰和限定前面的generatedalotofheat，其中generatedalotofheat与wereveryexpensivetooperate并列，主语为they。

译文：它们运作起来很昂贵，不仅要使用大量电力，还会产生大量热量，这往往是导致故障的原因。03Notes

ENIAC:电子数字积分计算机（ElectronicNumericalIntegratorAndCalculator），简称“埃尼阿克”，是世界上第一台通用计算机，也是继阿塔纳索夫-贝瑞计算机（Atanasoff-BerryComputer，简称ABC）之后的第二台电子计算机，由宾夕法尼亚大学的J.PresperEckert和JohnMauchly研制，于1946年2月14日问世。它由17468个电子管、6万个电阻器、1万个电容器和6千个开关组成，重达30吨，占地160平方米，耗电174千瓦，耗资45万美元。这台计算机每秒只能运行5千次加法运算。0405

UNIVACI:通用自动计算机（UniversalAutomaticComputer），简称“尤尼法克”，是世界上第一台商用计算机，它的设计者也是ENIAC的主要研究者Eckert和Mauchly。1951年6月14日，第一台UNIVAC作为商品交付给美国人口统计局使用，它开创了电子计算机专门用来进行数据处理的先河。后来，UNIVAC又参加了美国大选的统计处理工作，并预测了总统当选的情况，在美国引起了巨大的轰动。Notes

Altair8800:“牵牛星”8800，是世界上第一台微型计算机，由计算机工程师HenryEdwardRoberts设计，由他的公司微型仪器与自动测量系统公司（MITS）于1975年4月出售，售价375美元，带有1KB存储器。0607

Operatingfaster,itoftensatisfiesthegeneral-purposecomputingneedsofadepartmentorasmallbusiness.本句中，现在分词短语Operatingfaster作原因状语，it指代前文的minicomputer。短语satisfytheneedof…的意思是“满足……的需求”，固定搭配meettheneedof…亦可表达相同意思。Notes

The“fifth-generation”computerefforttodevelopcomputersthatcansolvecomplexproblemsinwaysthatmighteventuallymeritthedescription“creative”isanothertrendincomputerdevelopment,theidealgoalbeingtrueartificialintelligence.本句中，todevelopcomputersthatcansolvecomplexproblemsinwaysthatmighteventuallymeritthedescription“creative”为不定式作后置定语，修饰和限定The“fifth-generation”computereffort。anothertrendincomputerdevelopment是句子的表语，除去后置定语，句子可简化为The“fifth-generation”computereffortisanothertrendincomputerdevelopment，即“计算机发展的另一个趋势是‘第五代’计算机的研制工作”。theidealgoalbeingtrueartificialintelligence是一个独立主格结构，在句中作伴随状语。merit作动词时表示“值得，应受”，可搭配praise，consideration，description等名词。

译文：计算机发展的另一个趋势是“第五代”计算机的研制工作，亦即研制可以解决复杂问题而且其解决方法或许最终会与“创造性的”这一形容名副其实的计算机，理想的目标是真正的人工智能。08ExerciseExerciseExplainthefollowingabbreviations.11234CPURAMIBMIC中央处理器(CentralProcessingUnit)美国国际商用机器公司(InternationalBusinessMachine)随机访问内存(Random-accessMemory)集成电路(IntegratedCircuit)ExerciseExplainthefollowingabbreviations.15678LSIVLSIPDAGUI大规模集成电路(LargeScaleIntegration)超大规模集成电路(VeryLargeScaleIntegration)个人数字助理(PersonalDigitalAssistant)图形用户界面(GraphicalUserInterface)ExerciseFillineachblankwithasuitabletermoraphraseaccordingtoitsdefinition.201______:acollectionofunorganizedfacts,whichcanincludewords,numbers,images,andsounds02___________:aseriesofinstructionsthattellsthehardwarehowtoperformtasks03______:apieceofsiliconchipcontainingnumeroustransistorsdatasoftwareICExerciseFillineachblankwithasuitabletermoraphraseaccordingtoitsdefinition.204____________:thefirstgeneral-purposecomputerintheworld05____________________:atypeofcomputerthatisextremelyfastandusedforsophisticatedcalculations06_____________________:thephenomenonofdecreasedelectricalresistanceobservedincertainmaterialsatverylowtemperaturesENIACsupercomputersuperconductivityExerciseDecidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.3010203ThefirstdigitalcomputerintheworldisENIAC.ThefirstcommercialcomputerintheworldisUNIVACI.Dataisorganized,hasmeaning,andisuseful.F(ENIACistheseconddigitalcomputerafterAtanasoff-BerryComputer)

TF(Dataisaunorganized)ExerciseDecidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.3040506Desktopcomputersandportablecomputersbothbelongtomicrocomputers.Thedevelopmentofcomputershasgonethroughfourgenerations,eachofwhichwascharacterizedbyamajortechnologicaldevelopment.Microminiaturizationisoneofthetrendsincomputerdevelopment.

T

T

TExerciseTranslatethefollowingtermsorphrasesfromEnglishintoChineseandviceversa.4artificialintelligence opticalcomputerneuralnetworkparallelprocessingoperatingsystem 真空管集成电路电阻硅片小型计算机人工智能光计算机神经网络操作系统并行处理vacuumtubeintegratedcircuitelectricalresistancesiliconchipminicomputerExerciseTranslatethefollowingpassageintoChinese.5

Dataisacollectionofunorganizedfacts,whichcanincludewords,numbers,images,andsounds.Computersmanipulateandprocessdatatocreateinformation.Dataenteringintoacomputeriscalledinput.Theprocessedresultsarecalledoutput.Acomputercanalsoholddataandinformationforfutureuseinanareacalledstorage.Thiscycleofinput,process,output,andstorageiscalledtheinformationprocessingcycle.Apersonwhocommunicateswithacomputerorusestheinformationitgeneratesiscalledauser.Exercise

数据是未经组织的内容的集合，数据可以包括字符、数字、图形和声音。计算机管理数据，并将数据处理生成信息。向计算机输入的数据称为输入，处理的结果称为输出。计算机能在某一个称为存储器的地方保存数据和信息以备后用。输入、处理、输出和存储的整个周期称为信息处理周期。与计算机交互或使用计算机所产生信息的人称为用户。ReadingMaterialReadingMaterialHumanBrain—ModelofComputingFuture

EversincetheAmericancomputerscientistJohnMcCarthycoinedtheterm“ArtificialIntelligence”in1955,thepublichasimaginedafutureofsentientcomputersandrobotsthatthinkandactlikehumans.Butwhilesuchafuturemayindeedarrive,itremains,forthemoment,adistantprospect.ReadingMaterial

Andyettheforeseeablefrontierofcomputingisnolessexciting.WehaveenteredtheCognitiveEra.Breakthroughsincomputingareenhancingourabilitytomakesenseoflargebodiesofdata,providingguidanceinsomeoftheworld'smostimportantdecisionsandpotentiallyrevolutionizingentireindustries.ReadingMaterial

Theterm“cognitivecomputing”referstosystemsthat,ratherthanbeingexplicitlyprogrammed,arebuilttolearnfromtheirexperiences.Byextractingusefulinformationfromunstructureddata,thesesystemsacceleratetheinformationage,helpingtheiruserswithabroadrangeoftasks,fromidentifyinguniquemarketopportunitiestodiscoveringnewtreatmentsfordiseasestocraftingcreativesolutionsforcities,companiesandcommunities.ReadingMaterial

TheCognitiveEramarksthenextstageintheapplicationofsciencetounderstandnatureandadvancehumanprosperity.Itsbeginningdatestoearly2011,whenthecognitivecomputingsystemWatsonbeattwohumanchampionsonJeopardy!,agameshow.ReadingMaterial

Broadly,cognitivesystemsofferfivecorecapabilities.First,theycreatedeeperhumanengagement,usingdataaboutanindividualtocreatemorefullyhumaninteractions.Second,theyscaleandelevateexpertise,learningfromexpertsinvariousfieldsandmakingthatknow-howavailabletopeople.Third,theyprovideproducts,suchasthoseconnectedtothe“internetofthings”,withtheabilitytosensetheworldaroundthemandtolearnabouttheirusers.Fourth,theyallowtheiroperatorstounderstandlargeamountsofdata,helpingmanageworkflows,providingcontext,andallowingforcontinuouslearning,betterforecastingandimprovedoperationaleffectiveness.And,finally－perhapsmostimportant－theyallowtheiruserstoperceivepatternsandopportunitiesthatwouldbeimpossibletodiscoverthroughtraditionalmeans.ReadingMaterial

Cognitivesystemsareinspiredbythehumanbrain,anorganthatstillhasmuchtoteachus.Today,computersconsumeabout10percentoftheworld'selectricityoutput,accordingtoMarkMills,CEOoftheDigitalPowerGroup.TobenefitfullyfromtheCognitiveEra,wewillhavetobeabletoharnesshugeamountsofinformation;duringthenext15years,theamountof“digitallyaccessible”dataisexpectedtogrowbyafactorofmorethan1,000.Performingthecalculationsnecessaryforusingsuchalargeamountofdatawillnotbepossiblewithouthugestridesinimprovingenergyefficiency.ReadingMaterial

Matchingtheperformanceandefficiencyofthehumanbrainwilllikelyrequireustomimicsomeofitsstructures,forwhichwecanarrangecomputercomponentsinadense3Dmatrixsimilartoahumanbrain,maximizingnotperformance,butenergyefficiency.Arrangingcomputerchipsina3Denvironmentputsthevariouselementsofthecomputerclosertooneanother.Thisreducesthetimetheytaketocommunicateandimprovesenergyefficiencybyafactorofasmuchas5,000,potentiallyprovidingcomputerswithefficiencyclosetothatofabiologicalbrain.ReadingMaterial

Butman-madecomputersaresoinefficientnotonlybecausetheyneedtopowerthechips,butalsobecausetheyneedenergytoruntheairconditionersthatremovetheheatgeneratedbytheprocessors.Thehumanbrainhasalessontoteachhereaswell.Justasthebrainusessugarandbloodtoprovideenergyandcoolingtoitsvariousregions,a3Dcomputercouldusecoolantfluidtodeliverenergytothechips.Byadoptingsomeofthecharacteristicsofthehumanbrain,computershavethepotentialtobecomefarmorecompact,efficientandpowerful.Andthis,inturn,willallowustotakefulladvantageofcognitivecomputing—providingourrealbrainswithnewsourcesofsupport,stimulusandinspiration.1CPU2MemorySubsystem3I/OSubsystemLeadin

Acomputersystemconsistsofhardwaresystemandsoftwaresystem.Hardwareisthematerialfoundationofthecomputer,butwithoutsoftware,hardwarecannotbeinstructedtoprocessdataintoinformation.Hence,hardwareisthebodyofthecomputerandsoftwarethesoul.[1]Inthischapter,wemainlyintroducethecomputerhardwareandsoftwarewillbeillustratedinthefollowingchapter.Computerhardwareistheequipmentinvolvedinthefunctionofacomputerandconsistsofthecomponentsthatcanbephysicallyhandled.Itisusuallydividedintothreeprimarysubsystems:theCPU,thememorysubsystemandtheinput/output(I/O)subsystem.Thesethreepartsareinterconnectedbybuses,oftenmadeofgroupsofwires.1CPUCPU1

Thecomputer'scentralprocessingunit(CPU)istheelectroniccircuitrythatprovidesthecomputationalabilityandcontrolofthecomputer.Internally,theCPUhasthreesections,asshowninFigure2-1.

Asitsnameimplies,thearithmeticandlogicunit(ALU)performstwoclassesofoperations:arithmeticandlogic.Arithmeticoperationsincludeaddition,subtraction,multiplicationanddivision.Anycomputercanbeprogrammedtoperformanyarithmeticoperation.LogicoperationsinvolveBooleanlogic[2]:AND,OR,XORandNOT.ThesecanbeusefulbothforcreatingcomplicatedconditionalstatementsandprocessingBooleanlogic.Mostcomputerscanalsoperformcertainlogicoperationsonwords.Astheabovediagramshows,theALUreceivesitsoperandsfromtheregistersetoftheCPUandstoresitsresultsbackintheregisterset.Itperformswhateverarithmeticorlogicoperationsarerequiredtohelpcarryouttheinstructions.CPU11ArithmeticandLogicUnit

Thecontrolunit,oftencalledacontrolsystem,isafunctionalunitsupervisingtheoperationoftheentirecomputersystem.Itmakestheconnectionsbetweenvariousfunctionalunitsofthecomputersystemandinterpretsinstructionsintheprogramonebyone.Thecontrolunitfetchesinstructionsfrommemoryanddeterminestheirtypesordecodesthem.Itthenbreakseachinstructionintoaseriousofcontrolsignalsthatoperatetheotherpartsofthecomputer.Controlsystemsinadvancedcomputersmaychangetheorderofsomeinstructionssoastoimproveperformance.It'snotice