企业伦理学（原书第5版） 课件 第5、6章　企业社会责任；伦理决策：雇主的义务和雇员的权利

ChapterFive:CorporateSocialResponsibilityCopyright©2021McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.CorporateSocialResponsibility1Businesshastotakeaccountofitsresponsibilitiestosocietyincomingtoitsdecisions,butsocietyhastoacceptitsresponsibilitiesforsettingthestandardsagainstwhichthosedecisionsaremade. SirAdrianCadburyChapterObjectives1Afterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:Definecorporatesocialresponsibility.Describeandevaluatetheeconomicmodelofcorporatesocialresponsibility.Distinguishkeycomponentsofthetermresponsibility.Describeandevaluatetheeconomicmodelofcorporatesocialresponsibility.ChapterObjectives2Describeandevaluatethestakeholdermodelofcorporatesocialresponsibility.Describeandevaluatetheintegrativemodelofcorporatesocialresponsibility.ExplaintheroleofreputationmanagementasmotivationbehindCSR.EvaluatetheclaimsthatCSRis"good"forbusiness.Introduction:CorporateSocialResponsibilityThischapteraddressescorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)andhowfirmsopttomeetthisperceivedresponsibility.Businesseshaveasocialresponsibilitytoobeythelaw.Economically,businesseshaveasocialresponsibilitytoproducethegoodsandservicessocietydemands.Thereareambiguitiesinvolvedineachofthethreetermscorporate,social,andresponsibilities.TheprimaryquestionofCSRistheextenttowhichbusinessesandthemanagerswhorunthemhaveethicalresponsibilitiesbeyondproducinggoodsandserviceswithinthelaw.EthicsandSocialResponsibility1Thewordsresponsibleandresponsibilityareusedinseveraldifferentways.Onemeaningattributessomethingasacauseforaneventoraction.Inasecondsense,toberesponsibledoescarryethicalconnotations.Whenabusinessisresponsibletosomeoneorforsomething,itmeanswhatabusinessethicallyoughtorshoulddo.Productsafetyandliabilitylawsinvolvethesemeaningsofbeingresponsible.Corporatesocialresponsibilityreferstotheethicalexpectationsthatsocietyhasforbusiness.Ethicalresponsibilitiesarethosethingsthatweought,orshould,do,evenifsometimeswewouldrathernot.EthicsandSocialResponsibility2Philosophersoftendistinguishthreedifferentlevelsofethicalresponsibilitiesonascalefromlesstomoreobligatory.Ethicalresponsibilitiestodogood.Volunteering.Sponsoringacharityevent.Preventharm.GoodSamaritan.UserenewableenergyDonotcauseharmtoothers.Adutyoranobligation.Enforcedbylegalpunishment.EthicsandSocialResponsibility3Thestrongestsenseofresponsibilityisnottocauseharm.Evenwhennotexplicitlyprohibitedbylaw,ethicsdemandswenotcauseavoidableharm.Overridesbusiness’spursuitofprofit.Istherearesponsibilitytopreventharm?Amoreinclusiveunderstandingofcorporatesocialresponsibilitywouldholdthatbusinesshasaresponsibilitytopreventharm.Istherearesponsibilitytodogood?Mostwide-ranging,standardofCSRholdsthatbusinesshasasocialresponsibilitytodogoodthingsandtomakesocietyabetterplace.Philanthropyisnotsomethingthateverybusinessoughttodo.EthicsandSocialResponsibility4Therearecompetingunderstandingsofcorporatesocialresponsibilityandmanagement’sroleinfulfillingtheseresponsibilities.ThenarroweconomicmodelofCSRdirectsmanagerstomaximizeprofitandshareholderwealthwithinlegallimits.Thestakeholdermodelassetsthatneitherabusinessnortheemployeesareexemptfromordinaryethicalresponsibilities.TheintegrativemodelofCSRsaysthatpartofthemanagerialresponsibilitytoshareholdersistoservethesocialgood.Figure5.1:ModelsofCorporateSocialResponsibilityAccessthetextalternativeforslideimage.CorporateSocialResponsibility2Corporationsarepeople. MittRomneyEconomicModelofCSR1Thegeneraldefinitionofthetermcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)

istheethicalresponsibilitiesthatabusinesshastothesocietyinwhichitoperates.Fromaneconomicperspective,abusinessisaninstitution.Bydoingthis,thebusinessiscreatingjobsandwealththatprovidefurthersocialbenefits.Thelawcreatedaformofbusinesscalledacorporation,whichpromotestheseeconomicendsbylimitingtheliabilityofindividualsfortherisksinvolvedintheseactivities.EconomicModelofCSR2Holdsthatbusinesses’solesocialresponsibilityistofulfilltheeconomicfunctionstheyweredesignedtoserve.Managersareemployees,oragents,ofthoseownersandmustworktofurthertheowners’interests,primarilybymaximizingprofits.ManyobserversidentifythisperspectiveasthedominantmodelofCSRandrefertoitas"managerialcapitalism."Placesshareholdersatthecenterofthecorporation.Managershaveaprimaryresponsibilitytopursueprofitwithinthelaw.Corporationsareexpectedtoobeylegalmandates.EconomicModelofCSR3Businesshasnosocialresponsibilitiesbeyondtheeconomicandlegalendsforwhichitwascreated.Friedmansuggeststhatmanagersfulfilltheirethicalresponsibilitybyincreasingshareholderwealthandpursuingprofit.Thiscommonviewofcorporatesocialresponsibilityhasitsrootsintheutilitariantraditionandinneoclassicaleconomics.Withinthisdominanteconomicmodel,thereisroomtopursuesocialresponsibilities.EconomicModelofCSR4Businessisfreetocontributetosocialcausesasamatterofphilanthropy.Itbuildsgoodwilland/oragoodreputation,providestaxdeduction,andbuildsgoodwilloragoodreputationwithinthecommunity.SomesupportcausesthathavelittleornobusinessorfinancialpayoffasamatterofgivingbacktotheircommunitiesTheeconomicmodelinwhichbusinesssupportforasocialcauseisdonesimplybecauseitistherightthingtododiffersfromthereputationalversiononlyintermsoftheunderlyingmotivation.StakeholderModelofCSR1Businessesexistwithinawebofsocialandethicalrelationshipsandcreatevalueforarangeofstakeholders.NormanBowiearguesthatbusinesshasanethicaldutytorespecthumanrights.Itisthe"moralminimum"thatwecanexpectofeveryperson.Theobligationtocausenoharmoverridesotherethicalconsiderations.Ifmanagerscomplywiththemoralminimum,theyshouldmaximizeprofits.StakeholderModelofCSR2StakeholdertheoryRecognizesthateverybusinessdecisionaffectsawidevarietyofpeople,benefitingsomeandimposingcostsonothers.Thestakeholdermodelsimplyacknowledgesthisprincipleandpointsoutthatotherethicaldutieshaveanequalclaimonmanagerialdecisionmaking.AcknowledgesthisfactbyrequiringmanagementtobalancetheethicalinterestsofallaffectedpartiesLikeutilitarianism,itasksmanagerstoconsidertheconsequencesofitsdecisions.Socialresponsibilityrequiresdecisionstoprioritizecompetingandconflictingresponsibilities.Becausestakeholdertheoryrecognizesthatsomestakeholdershavedifferentpowerandimpactondecisionsthanothers.CorporateSocialResponsibility3MaketheWorldaBetterPlace. BenandJerry’scorporatemissionstatement.IntegrativeModelofCSRShouldbusinessbeexpectedtosacrificeprofitsforsocialends?Thereareorganizationsthatpursuesocialendsastheverycoreoftheirmission,suchasnonprofits.Somefor-profitorganizationshavesocialgoalsasacentralpartofthestrategicmission.Becausethesefirmsintegrateeconomicandsocialgoals,theyareusingtheintegrativemodelofCSR.Therearenoclaimsthateverybusinessshouldadopttheprinciplesofbenefitcorporations.Benefitcorporationsshowprofitisnotincompatiblewithdoinggood,andthereforethatonecandogoodprofitably.Othersarguesustainabilityisrelevanttoeverybusinessconcern.TheImplicationsofSustainabilityAsatopicwithinCSR,sustainabilitymeansafirm’sfinancialgoalsmustbebalancedagainst,andmaybeoverriddenby,environmentalconsiderations.Defenderssayalleconomicactivityexistsinabiospherethatsupportsalllife.And,theyarguethatthepresentmodelofeconomics,andespeciallythemacroeconomicgoalofeconomicgrowthisalreadyrunningupagainstthelimitsofthebiosphere'scapacitytosustainlife.Fromthisperspective,successmustbejudgedbythefinancialbottomline,aswellastheecologicalandsocialbottomlines.Acorporatesustainabilityreportprovidesallstakeholderswithfinancialandotherinformationregardingafirm’seconomic,environmental,andsocialperformance.CorporateSocialResponsibilityWearenotinbusinesstomakemaximumprofitforourshareholders.Weareinbusiness…toservesociety.Profitisourrewardfordoingitwell.Ifbusinessdoesnotservesociety,societywillnotlongtolerateourprofitsorevenourexistence.KennethDayton,formerchairoftheDayton-HudsonCorporationExploringEnlightenedSelf-InterestArethereotherreasonsbesidesself-interestandeconomicsforabusinesstoengageinsociallyresponsibleactivities?CSRcanimpactafirm’sreputationwithinacommunity.Theproblemwithafocusonreputationisthatsocialresponsibilitythencanbecomemerelysocialmarketing.Thepracticeofattendingtothe"image"ofafirmisreferredtoasreputationmanagement;failuretodosomightbeapoorbusinessdecision.CompaniesmaybechallengedforengaginginCSRactivitiessolelyforthepurposeofaffectingtheirreputations.Therearemanyaspectsofafirm’sreputation.Itcanbewell-respectedforitsproductsandservices,foritsfinancialperformance,asagoodplacetowork,andasagoodcorporatecitizen.Ifafirmdevelopsabadreputation,itcancreatesignificantbarrierstobusinesssuccess.ExploringEnlightenedSelf-Interest1Isgoodethicsalsogoodbusiness?Enlightenedself-interestpresumesitis,oratleastcanbe.Theoristscontinuetodisputewhetherethicaldecisionsleadtomoresignificantprofitsthanunethicaldecisions.Thereisageneralagreementthatethicspaysoffinthelongrun,buthowtomeasurethatpayoffisthechallenge.Oftenthemeasurementofagoodreputationisnotevidentorobvious.Isthereabusinesscaseforreturnoninvestmentfromethics?Evidencesaysyes,butthedominantthinkingisthat,ifitcannotbemeasured,itisnotimportant.ExploringEnlightenedSelf-Interest2Measurementiscriticalastherearedetractors.DavidVogelfromBerkeleycontendsthatfirmswithstrongCSRmissionsserveanichemarketofconsumersandinvestors.Arguesthatcontrarytoaglobalshiftinthebusinessenvironment,CSRinsteadshouldbeperceivedasjustoneoptionResearchconcludesthatitdoespayforbusinessesinemergingmarketstopursueawiderroleinenvironmentalandsocialissues.Studiesfindthereareanumberofexpected—andmeasurable—outcomestoethicsprogramsinorganizations.ConclusionThischaptersoughttoanswerthequestionofwhetherthereexistsasocialresponsibilityofbusiness.Severalsourceswereproposed.Responsibilitymaybebasedinaconceptofgoodcorporatecitizenship,asocialcontract,orenlightenedself-interest.Thechapterexploredthechallengeofhowaninanimateentity(acorporation)couldhavearesponsibilitytoothers.Italsodiscussedtheextentofthatobligation,bothinlawandethics.OnethingthatiscertaintodayisthatitisimpossibletoengageinbusinesstodaywithoutencounteringandaddressingCSR.AccessibilityContent:TextAlternativesforImagesFigure5.1:ModelsofCorporateSocialResponsibility-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimageTheeconomicmodelofCSRstatesthattheprimaryresponsibilityofmanagementistomaximizeprofitwithinthelaw.Intheeconomicmodel,managementmayalsochoosetocontributetosocietyasamatterofphilanthropy,butnotasamatterofdutyorsocialresponsibility.Theymaycontributeforreputationalpurposes.Socialresponsibilitycontributestoprofitability.Ortheymaycontributebecauseitistherightthingtodo.ThestakeholdermodelofCSRassertsthatbusinessisembeddedwithinawebofsocialrelationshipsofmutualrightsandresponsibilities.Businessmanagershaveresponsibilitiestoarangeofstakeholders.TheintegrativemodelofCSRholdsthatsocialresponsibilityisintegrateddirectlyintothemissionandpurposeofthecorporations.Exampleswouldbebenefitcorporations,suchasBenandJerry’s.ChapterSix:EthicalDecisionMaking:EmployerResponsibilitiesandEmployeeRightsCopyright©2021McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.ChapterObjectives1Afterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:Distinguishbetweenthetwodistinctperspectivesoftheethicsofworkplacerelationships.Explaintheconceptofdueprocessintheworkplace.Describehowtodownsizeinanethicalmanner.Explainthedifferencebetweenintrinsicandinstrumentalvalueintermsofhealthandsafety.Illustrateanemployer’sresponsibilitywithregardtoemployeehealthandsafetyandwhythemarketisnoteffectiveatmanagingthisresponsibility.ChapterObjectives2Explainthebasicargumentsforandagainstregulationofthegloballaborenvironment.Describetheargumentforamarket-basedresolutiontoworkplacediscrimination.Definediversityasitappliestotheworkplace,aswellasitsbenefitsandchallenges.Explainaffirmativeactionanddescribethethreewaysinwhichaffirmativeactionmaybelegallypermissible.EthicalDecisionMakingHirecharacter.Trainskill.PeterSchutzEthicsandBusinessTheemployergenerallygetstheemployeeshedeserves.J.PaulGettyIntroduction1Ethicsintheemploymentcontextisauniversaltopic.Thelawprovidesguidanceforthinkingaboutethicalissuesintheworkplace,buttheseissuesgowellbeyondlegalconsiderations.Thischapterexploresareasofethicaldecisionmakingintheworkplaceremainsrelativelyfluidandwhereanswersarenoteasilyfoundbysimplycallingthecompanylawyer.Introduction2Variousethicalchallengesfacingthenatureofemployerresponsibilitiesandtheemployeeareaddressedinthischapter.Aseachissueisexamined,trytoemploytheethicaldecision-makingprocesstoreachthebestpossibleconclusionforthestakeholders.Utilizinganethicaldecision-makingprocessavoidslaterhurdlesandremovesbarrierstoprogressandmomentum.EthicalIssuesintheWorkplace:TheCurrentEnvironment1

Ethicsatworkandinhumanresourcemanagementisaboutrelationshipswithothersandwiththecompany.Companieswhoplaceemployeesatthecoreoftheirstrategiesproducehigherlong-termreturnstoshareholdersthantheirindustrypeers–morethandouble.EthicalIssuesintheWorkplace:TheCurrentEnvironment250%ofU.S.workersfeelstrongloyaltytotheiremployer.Importantfactorforthemwastofeelvaluedbyelementssuchasbenefitsandopportunitiesforprofessionalgrowth.78%ofthoseworkerswhoexperiencedunethicaloruncivilbehavioratworkreportthattheircommitmenttotheorganizationdeclined.66%saidtheirperformancedeclined.EthicalIssuesintheWorkplace:TheCurrentEnvironment3Treatemployeeswellforareturn.Thereturnisharmony,productivity,andinnovation.Effectivefirmssharecommonpractices,allofwhichinvolvetreatingemployeesinhumaneandrespectfulways.Managershaveanimpactontheemotionsoftheirworkersasdorewards,compensation,andcompositionofteams.Treatemployeeswelloutofasenseofduty.Thisapproachemphasizestherightsanddutiesofallemployees.Andtreatingthemwellsimplybecauseitis"therightthingtodo".Asenseofdutymightstemfromthelaw,professionalcodesofconduct,corporatecodesofconduct,ormoralprinciples.DefiningtheEmploymentRelationship1Ethicalissuesareboundtoriseoncearelationshipisformedbetweenanemployerandanemployee.Toworkforanotherpersonraisesissuesofpower,obligation,responsibility,fairtreatment,andexpectations.Legalrequirementsmightprotectsomeoftheemployee'sandemployer'sinterestsbutcanonlygosofar.DefiningtheEmploymentRelationship2Thenextsectionscovertheethicsunderlyingtheconceptsofdueprocessandfairnessthatdeterminesacceptableworkplacebehavior.Therelationshipisfurtherdefinedbytheapplicationoftheseprinciplestoworkingconditions.Issuesinthefollowingsectionsaresettledfromanethicalperspectivebytheirjustification.DueProcessandJustCause1Shouldemployers’rightsandabilitytohire,fire,ordisciplineemployeesberestrictedtopreventinjustices?Philosophically,therightofdueprocessistherighttobeprotectedagainstthearbitraryuseofauthority.Inlegalcontexts,dueprocessistheproceduresthatpoliceandcourtsmustfollowinexercisingtheirauthorityovercitizens.DueProcessandJustCause2Dueprocessintheworkplaceacknowledgesanemployer’sauthorityoveremployees.Basicfairness—implementedthroughdueprocess—demandsthatthispowerbeusedjustly.However,workplacebullyingandotheremotionalabuseisaproblem,especiallyintheservicesector.Thisbehaviordirectlyandindirectlyimpactsemployees.DueProcessandJustCause3Whilebasicfairnessdemandsemployersusepowerjustly,thelawdoesnotalwaysclearlysupportthismandateofjustice.MostU.S.employmentlawevolvedinacontextofalegaldoctrineknowsasemploymentatwill(EAW).EAWholdsthat,intheabsenceofaparticularcontractualorotherlegalobligationthatspecifiesthelengthorconditionsofemployment,allemployeesareemployed"atwill."Employersmayfireemployeesatanytime,foranyreason.Employeesarealsofreetofireanemployeeatanytimeandforanyreason;EAWworkermayopttoleaveajobatanytimeforanyreasonSothefreedomistheoreticallymutual.DueProcessandJustCause4TheethicalrationaleforEAWisthatitisanimportantmanagementtool,whichgivesmanagerstheabilitytomakeefficientdecisionsthatshouldcontributetothegreateroverallgood.EvenifEAWwereaneffectivemanagementtoo,justicedemandssuchtoolsnotbeusedtoharmotherpeople.Therightofprivatepropertyitselfislimitedbyotherrightsandduties.Whilethefreedomtoterminateemploymentistheoreticallymutual,thereisanunbalancedpowerrelationshipbetweenthetwoparties.ThecourtsandlegislaturehascreatedexceptionstoEAW.Civilrightslaws,laborlaws,andconstitutionallimitationsongovernmentauthorityintotheworkplacetoprotectemployees.ExceptionstotheDoctrineofEmploymentatWill1Statesvaryintermsoftheirrecognitionofthefollowingexceptionstothedoctrineofemploymentatwill.Somestatesrecognizeoneormoreexceptions,whileothersmightrecognizenoneatall.Inaddition,thedefinitionoftheseexceptionsmayvaryfromstatetostate.Badfaith,malicious,orretaliatoryterminationinviolationofpublicpolicy.Terminationinbreachoftheimpliedcovenantofgoodfaithandfairdealing.Terminationinbreachofsomeotherimpliedcontractterm,suchasthosethatmightbecreatedbyemployeehandbookprovisions(incertainjurisdictions).ExceptionstotheDoctrineofEmploymentatWill2Terminationinviolationofthedoctrineofpromissoryestoppel(wheretheemployeereasonablyreliedonanemployer’spromise,totheemployee’sdetriment).Otherexceptionsasdeterminedbystatutes(suchastheWorkerAdjustmentandRetrainingNotificationAct[WARN]ortheFamilyandMedicalLeaveAct[FMLA]).DueProcessandJustCause5EAWholdsincourtuntilandunlessanexceptioncanbedemonstrated.Theburdenofprooflieswiththedismissedemployeetoshowthatsheorhewasunjustlyorillegallyfired.Dueprocessandjustcausewouldreversethisburdenofproofontotheemployer.Justcause:Astandardforterminationsordisciplinethatrequirestheemployertohavesufficientandfaircausebeforereachingadecisionagainstanemployee.DueProcessandJustCause6Dueprocessissuesariseinotheremploymentcontexts.Fairtreatmentinvolvesfairnessinareassuchaspromotions,salary,andbenefits.Asthesedecisionsaremadeonthebasisofperformanceappraisals,dueprocessrightsshouldextendtothisaspectoftheworkplace.Theethicalquestionsthatremain,arewhetherthisatmosphereisfairandjustforallstakeholders.Dueprocessistherighttobeprotectedagainstthearbitraryuseofauthority.Decisionmakersmustguardagainstthosearbitrarydecisions.Decisionsshouldbemadeinlightofreasonsthatcanbeethicallydefended.Downsizing1Thereductionofhumanresourcesatanorganizationthroughterminations,retirements,corporatedivestments,orothermeans.Thedecisionitselfraisesethicalissuesbecausemaybetherewerealternativesavailabletoanorganizationinfinancialdifficulty.Considertheimpactofeachalternativefromthestakeholders'perspective.

Downsizing2Negativeoutcomesinclude:Poorrecommendationsofthefirmbyformeremployees.Adeclineincustomerservicebysurvivingemployees.Anincreaseinerrorsordangerousbehaviorbyemployees.Badattitudesfromremainingworkers.Downsizing3Ethicsmustbecentraltothedesignandmanagementoflayoffpolicies.Thedecisionfordownsizingshouldbemadebyarepresentativegrouptoconsiderallstakeholderinterestsandearnthetrustofthosewhowillbeimpacted.Thefactsshouldbecollected,andissuesshouldbedetermined.Noticeofanintenttodownsizeshouldgivenassoonasthedownsizingisgoingtohappen.Costsandbenefitsmustbeweighedinanycommunicationdecision.Identifystakeholdersanddefinetheimpactofdownsizingoneach.Downsizing4Fromalegalperspective,thedecisionaboutwhomtoincludeinadownsizingeffortmustbecarefullyplanned.Firmsshouldreviewboththefairnessoftheirdecision-makingprocessandtheconsequenceofthatprocessonthoseterminated,andtheresultingcompositionoftheworkforce.Downsizingimpactscountlessstakeholders.HealthandSafety1Employeeshaveafundamentalrighttoasafeandhealthyworkplace.However,insomeworkplacesinourworld,employeeslackeventhemostbasichealthandsafetyprotections;theseworkenvironmentshavebeencalledsweatshops.Theextentofemployerresponsibilityisindispute,andthereisdisagreementaboutthebestpoliciestoprotecthealthandsafety.HealthandSafety2Likework,healthandsafetyare"goods"thatarevaluedasameansforattaininganendandalsoasendsinthemselves.Healthandsafetyhaveintrinsicvalueinadditiontoinstrumentalvalue.Ifapersondiesinaworkplaceaccident,theirlostwageswouldbetheinstrumentalvalue.Theintrinsicvalueoftheirlifeisirreplaceablebyfinancialmeans.If"safe"meanscompletelyfreefromrisk,certainlynoworkplaceisperfectlysafe.Ifhealthandsafetyareinterpretedasideals,impossibletorealize,thenitwouldbeunreasonabletoclaimthatemployeeshavearighttoahealthyandsafeworkplace.Figure6.1:CalculatingAcceptableLevelofRiskFromthisperspective,aworkplaceissafeiftherisksareacceptable.Accessthetextalternativeforslideimage.ChallengestotheAcceptableRiskApproachtoHealthandSafetyTreatsemployeesdisrespectfullybyignoringtheirinputasstakeholders.Ignoresthefundamentaldeontologicalrightanemployeemighthavetoasafeandhealthyworkingenvironment.Assumesanequivalencybetweenworkplacerisksandothertypesofriskswhentherearesignificantdifferencesbetweenthem.Improperlyplacesincentivesbecausetherisksfacedatworkcouldbecontrolledbyotherswhomightstandtobenefitbynotreducingthem. HealthandSafetyasMarketControlledDefendersofthefreemarketandtheclassicalmodelofcorporatesocialresponsibilitywouldfavorindividualbargainingastheapproachtoworkplacehealthandsafety.Workersdemandinghighersafetystandardsandhealthierconditionswouldsettleforlowerwages.Workerswillingtotakehigherriskswoulddemandhigherwages.Inacompetitiveandfreelabormarket,individualbargainingwouldresultintheoptimaldistributionofsafetyandincome.Themarketapproachcansupportcompensationtoinjuredworkerswhenitcanbeshownthatemployerswereresponsiblefortheharm.Thethreatofcompensationactsasanincentiveforemployerstomaintainareasonablysafeandhealthworkplace.ChallengeswiththeFree-MarketApproachtoHealthandSafetyLabormarketsarenotperfectlycompetitiveandfree.Employeesseldom,ifever,possessthekindofperfectinformationmarketsrequire.Weignoreimportantquestionsofsocialjusticeandpublicpolicyifweapproachquestionssolelyfromthepointofviewofanindividual. HealthandSafetyasGovernment-RegulatedEthics1Mandatorygovernmentstandards:Canbesetwiththebestavailablescientificknowledgeandthusovercomingmarketfailuresfromlesserinformation.Preventemployeesfromchoosingbetweenjobandsafety.Focusonpreventionratherthancompensation.Areasocialapproachaddressingpublicpolicyquestionsignoredbymarkets.OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA):AgencyofthefederalgovernmentthatpublishesandenforcessafetyandhealthregulationsforU.S.businesses.HealthandSafetyasGovernment-RegulatedEthics2OSHAregulationswereaimedatachievingthesafestfeasiblestandards,allowingtradeoffsbetweenhealthandeconomics.CriticsinbothindustryandgovernmentarguethatOSHAshouldusecost-benefitsanalysiswhensettingstandards.Thisapproachwouldleadbacktothegoalsofthemarket-basedapproachofindividualbargaining,alongwithitsethicalchallenges.Notehowever,thatrejectingcost-benefitanalysisinsettingstandardsisnotthesameascost-effectivestrategiesinimplementingthosestandards.Cost-benefitanalysisuseseconomiccriteriainsettingstandardsandisthereforeethicallyproblematic.HealthandSafetyasGovernment-RegulatedEthics3ThepoliciesthathaveemergedbyconsensuswithintheUnitedStatesseemtobemostdefensible.Employeeshavealegitimateethicalclaimonmandatoryhealthandsafetystandardswithinthewo