TheHRMSofJapan组织设计与人力资源清华大学王一江

TheHRMSofJapan组织设计与人力资源清华大学王一江I.TheContext21.Japan’scompetitiveadvantage

Oneofthemostsuccessfulininternationalmarketplace,atruly“export-driven”economy.(JPBegin,p.33.)Ledtheworldinannualincreasesinproductivity,averaging6%in1950-89(1.9fortheUS).31)factorconditionsJapanhasapaucityofnaturalresources(exceptrainfallandcoastallines)LargepoolofengineersbyeducationR&Dinvestmentoneofthehighestamongadvancednations–mostlyprivatespending.2.SourceofJapan’scompetitiveadvantage4

Interventionistgovernment(likeSwedenandGermany)with

-planning,

-ownership,(telecommunicationandrailwayshavebeenprivatized)

-restrictionsonplantclosingsandrestructuring

-publicresourcestocushioneconomicchange,andprotectionofdomesticmarkets.

-collectivebargaininglegislationpatternedaftertheUS,butlaborlegislationisnotasextensiveasinGermanyandSweden.Cooperativelaborrelationshipatenterpriselevel

2.SourceofJapan’scompetitiveadvantage52)DemandconditionJapanhasoneofthelargesthomemarketswithdemandingandsophisticatedbuyers.

3)RelatedandsupportingindustryClosesupply-demandrelationshipamajorfactorforlowcost,highqualityoutput.2.SourceofJapan’scompetitiveadvantage64)Firmrivalry Firmscompeteonlong-termbasistoachieveemploymentstability Institutionalownershipenablesthelong-termorientation. Large#ofproducersinauto,audioequipment,copymachine,semiconductor,isconducivetodomesticcompetitionandcontributedtointernationalsuccess.2.SourceofJapan’scompetitiveadvantage7II.JapaneseHRMS81.Worksystems1) Leanproduction2) 69%ofworkersinautoindustryareinteams(17.3%inUS)3) Jobsareverydemandingforworkers,haveabroadrangeoftasks,andgiveworkersmoreautonomy.4) Employeesareauthorizedtostopthemachineandexpectedtofixanyproblemsonspot92.Developmentsystems1)Externaleducation Over90%ofthepopulationfinishesthehighschool Vocationaleducationisofsecondaryimportance. 40%ofhighschoolgraduatesattenduniversities,whichisnecessaryforamanagerialcareer.TokyoUcontributesdisproportionatelytohighlevelgovernmentandcorporateexecutives.102.Developmentsystems1)Externaleducation

Moreemphasisongeneraleducation,engineering,andlessonprofessionalmanagementtraining. Entrancetohighschoolsandcollegesishighlycompetitive. Semi-institutionalizedrelationshipbetweenschoolsandemployers.112)Trainingwithinthefirm Communitycollegeequivalentin-housetraininginstitutionsarehighlydeveloped. J-firmsspendmorethanothercountriesperemployeeontraining.Japaneseautoplants,forexample,spend370-80hrsperyearperworkerontraining,comparedwith46hrsforUSand173forEuropeanplants. Allnewworkersgothroughaoneweektotwomonthorientation.2.Developmentsystems122)Trainingwithinthefirm

Muchmoreisspentonproductionworkersthanmanagers.Notethatmostmanagersalsostartedfromthebottom. In-housetrainingismoreemphasized. Trainingcontentsarebroad. Amajorpurposeoftrainingistolearnsoftskillsforteamwork.2.Developmentsystems132)Trainingwithinthefirm On-the–jobtrainingisimportant.Seniorworkersandteamleadersareresponsibleforbringingjuniorworkersuptospeed.Seniorityinpromotionensuresseniorpeople’swillingnesstosharetheirK&S. Jobrotationisextensivelyusedforemployeedevelopment.Asurveyindicatedthatin1989jobrotation(0=none,4=frequent)was3.0inJ,0.9intheUSand1.9forallEurope.2.Developmentsystems142)TrainingwithinthefirmQualitycircle,groupactivitiesalsocontributetotraining. Promotionistypicallyaccompaniedwithmoretraining.43%oflargefirmsuseoutsidecorrespondencecoursestoimprovetheabilityofworkerstodotheirpresentjobs. Specializedexternaltraininginstitutionsarealsodevelopingmorequicklynow. Government’sroleisquitelimited.2.Developmentsystems15Thescopeofconsultationisbroad.Executivescan’tparticipate.SourceofJapan’scompetitiveadvantageGovernancesystemsPromotionfromwithin.Menareoftentransferredwithouttheirfamilies,ifsituationspreventthefamiliestomovealong.68%inSweden).In1989,84%ofallunionizedand44%non-unionizedfirmshadajointconsultationscheme.Muchreallocation/reemploymentassistancebyemployers.3)Outflow--e)SubcontractingOperationworkersarerespected.Egalitarianpayatbeginning.3) Jobsareverydemandingforworkers,haveabroadrangeoftasks,andgiveworkersmoreautonomy.3)Outflow--c)TransfersEntrancetohighschoolsandcollegesishighlycompetitive.(5%inUSA.Allnewworkersgothroughaoneweektotwomonthorientation.Worknatureandabilitybasedpayisbecomingmorepopularlately.2)PayforperformanceDevelopmentsystems2)TrainingwithinthefirmOver90%ofthepopulationfinishesthehighschoolGovernancesystems6%weredomesticworkers.9fortheUS).Cooperative,bottom-upconsensusbuildingprocessindecisionmakingisfoundinJ-firms.3)Outflow--a.GspendingonlabormarketserviceisaboutthesameastheUS(.DevelopmentsystemsSpecializedexternaltraininginstitutionsarealsodevelopingmorequicklynow.3.StaffingJapanhasthemostdevelopedinternallabormarketslargelyinsulatedfromexternallabormarkets.1) Inflow Hirehighqualityhighschoolandcollegestudentsatthebeginningoftheircareer. Enteratentrylevel. Screeningofjobcandidatesisstrict,withextensivebackgroundcheckingandrelianceonschoolsforinformation.163.Staffing1) Inflow Antidiscriminationlegislationin1985ledmoreemployerstohirefemaleworkers. Newhireshavesmallstartingwagedifferentials. 500MinistryofLaborofficeshelp1/5ofnewworkerstofindjobs.GspendingonlabormarketserviceisaboutthesameastheUS(.62%ofGDP,2.68%inSweden).173.Staffing1) Inflow Hiringisnotstoppedtomaintainanevenagedistribution.Buttheproportionoftempswouldincreasewithnopromiseabouttheirfuture. In1985,80.5%oftheworkersinnon-agricultureemploymentwereregularfulltimeworkers,6.2%wereregularpart-timeworkers,9.8%weretempfullorparttimeworkers,and2.6%weredomesticworkers.Theseproportionshavechangedlittleoveradecadeandahalf.18Asurveyindicatedthatin1989jobrotation(0=none,4=frequent)was3.Egalitarianpayatbeginning.Unionparticipatesindecisionmaking.9intheUSand1.43%oflargefirmsuseoutsidecorrespondencecoursestoimprovetheabilityofworkerstodotheirpresentjobs.Employershavesubstantialflexibilityinscheduling.Contractedworkcanbepulledbacktothefirmwheneconomyisbad.2) 69%ofworkersinautoindustryareinteams(17.Rewardsystems3)Fringes(5%inUSA.1)factorconditions70%ofworkersinages65-9work(manyafterretirementatlargefirms)forsmallerfirms.1) ParticipationPromotionistypicallyaccompaniedwithmoretraining.3.Staffing1) Inflow

Mid-careerjobhoppingmakesnosense,giventheseniorityruleforpromotionandwageincrease.Mid-careerjobchangesmakebettersensewhenmovingtoforeignfirmsinJorasmallerfirm.193.Staffing2) Internalflow--Promotion

Promotionfromwithin.Asurveyfoundthatover90%ofdirectorswerepromotedfromwithin. Movingupslowlyfromentrylevel,followingatournamentprocess. Joblabelsdonotreflectfunctionalresponsibilities.Changeinjobresponsibilitydoesnotnecessarilymeanapayincrease.203.Staffing2) Internalflow--Promotion

Bluecollarscanmovemoreeasilyintowhitecollarjobs. Initialpromotionsdonotdependmuchonperformanceasmuchasseniority.After35,meritsbecomemoreimportant. ExternalhireofCEOsisrare. Therehavebeeneffortstobreakawayfromthesetraditions.213.Staffing2) Internalflow--Jobassignment

Employershaveagreatdealoffreedomtoassign,transferandreallocateworkers,althoughunionsmaypersuadeasupervisortochangemind. Mosttransfersareinvoluntary.Menareoftentransferredwithouttheirfamilies,ifsituationspreventthefamiliestomovealong.223.Staffing3)Outflow--a.Employmentsecurity Terminationandlayoffsarerare. Lifetimeemploymentisacustom,notacontractualorlegalrequirement. Onlyregularworkersenjoythissecurity,whichisabout¼to1/3oftotalworkers. Earlymandatoryretirement(intheearly50s)233.Staffing3)Outflow--a.Employmentsecurity

Workerscanbetransferredorsendtotrainingprogramswhenthereissurplus. Usediversificationtoreallocatesurplusworkers J-firmsaremovingincreasinglyandveryslowlytolayoffs.243.Staffing3)Outflow--b)Layoffs

Firstgototempsandparttimers Muchreallocation/reemploymentassistancebyemployers.253.Staffing3)Outflow--c)Transfers

Withinthefirm, Within“zaibatsu”,withworkers’namesretainedwiththeoriginalemployer. Tolowerstatusfirms263.Staffing3)Outflow--d)Retirement Mandatoryretirementinlargefirmsusedtobemid-50s. It’sbeenincreasedto60undergovernmentpressure. Lump-sumpaymentsmadeatretirement About40%firmsalsopayannuities. Employersbearthecosts. 70%ofworkersinages65-9work(manyafterretirementatlargefirms)forsmallerfirms.273.Staffing3)Outflow--e)Subcontracting

Nogovernmentorunionrestrictionforsubcontracting Contractedworkcanbepulledbacktothefirmwheneconomyisbad.283.Staffing3)Outflow--f)Termination

Progressivedisciplineisrequired. Theconsequencesofterminationaresubstantial:lostretirementbenefits,difficultyforreemployment. In1982,2.3%ofallseparationswerefordisciplinaryreasons.294.GovernancesystemsCooperative,bottom-upconsensusbuildingprocessindecisionmakingisfoundinJ-firms.

1) Participation Consultationatfirmandplantlevels.In1989,84%ofallunionizedand44%non-unionizedfirmshadajointconsultationscheme. Thescopeofconsultationisbroad.Subcommitteesforsafety,welfare,productivityandleave/workinghourissues. Qualitycirclesatjoblevel304.Governancesystems1) Participation Autoworkersmake61.6suggestionsperemployeeperannum,comparedwith4inUSandEurope.(“Continuousprocessinnovations”) Opensharingoffirminformation. 90%oflistedJ-firmshaveESOPandinthesefirms½employeesparticipateintheseESOPplans.Executivescan’tparticipate. ESOPemployeeshaveamemberontheboardofdirectors314.Governancesystems2)Collectivebargainingsystem Enterprise-basedunionsakeyforwelfarecorporatism. Unionparticipatesindecisionmaking.TheprocessishardtodistinguishfromCB. Unionsareprimarilyconcernedwithwage(through“springoffensives”). Firmsnegotiatewithunionsunderindustryguidelinesnegotiatedbyindustryunions Agreementsareshort,abstractandoftenobscure,easytochangetomaintainflexibility.325.Rewardsystems1)Basicsalarysystem Monthlysalarybasedoneducation,increasedonceayear. Monthlyallowancesamountto20%ofmonthlypay,relatedtoworktime,responsibilities,livingexpenses,commutation,etc. Twiceyearlybonusesconsistofover20%oftotalincome. Senioritywagemaydropafteracertainage.335.Rewardsystems2)Payforperformance Egalitarianpayatbeginning. Bonusescanvaryforindividualsoranenti