1Chapter 1-intro胡壮麟语言学教程第一章

ChapterOne

InvitationstoLinguistics2023最新整理收集do

something21.1SomemythsaboutlanguageLanguageisonlyameansofcommunication.Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.Thefunctionoflanguageistoexchangeinformation.EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.BlackEnglishisnotstandardandshouldbereformed.31.2SomefundamentalviewsaboutLChildrenlearntheirnativelanguageswiftly,efficientlyandwithoutinstruction.Languageoperatesbyrules.Alllanguageshavethreemajorcomponents:asoundsystem,asystemoflexicogrammarandasystemofsemantics.Everyonespeaksadialect.Languageslowlychanges.4Speakersofalllanguagesemployarangeofstylesandasetofjargons.Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualswhousethem.Writingisderivativeofspeech.52.WhatisLanguage?Language“isnottobeconfusedwithhumanspeech,ofwhichitisonlyadefinitepart,thoughcertainlyanessentialone.Itisbothasocialproductofthefacultyofspeechandacollectionofnecessaryconventionsthathavebeenadoptedbyasocialbodytopermitindividualstoexercisethatfaculty”.--FerdinanddeSaussure(1857-1913):CourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916)6“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”--EdwardSapir(1884-1939):Language:AnIntroductiontotheStudyofSpeech(1921)7“Alanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsbymeansofwhichasocialgroupco-operates.”--BernardBloch(1907-1965)

&GeorgeTrager(1906-1992):OutlineofLinguisticAnalysis(1942)“Alanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsbymeansofwhichthemembersofasocietyinteractintermsoftheirtotalculture.”--GeorgeTrager:TheFieldofLinguistics(1949)8“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”--NoamChomsky(1928-):SyntacticStructures(1957)9Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”--RobertA.Hall(1911-1997):IntroductoryLinguistics(1964)“Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.”--RonaldWardhaugh:IntroductiontoLinguistics(1977)10“Thequestion‘Whatislanguage?’iscomparablewith--and,somewouldsay,hardlylessprofoundthan--

‘Whatislife?’,thepresuppositionsofwhichcircumscribeandunifythebiologicalsciences...itisnotsomuchthequestionitselfastheparticularinterpretationthatthebiologistputsuponitandtheunravellingofitsmoredetailedimplicationswithinsomecurrentlyacceptedtheoreticalframeworkthatnourishthebiologist'sday-to-dayspeculationsandresearch.Soitisforthelinguistinrelationtothequestion‘Whatislanguage?’”--JohnLyons(1932-):LanguageandLinguistics(1981)

11“...inasensealldefinitions[oflanguage]are,bythemselves,inadequate,since,iftheyaretobemorethantrivialanduninformative,theymustpresuppose...somegeneraltheoryoflanguageandoflinguisticanalysis.”--R.H.Robins(1921-2000):GeneralLinguistics(1989)12“Languageisaformofhumancommunicationbymeansofasystemofsymbolsprincipallytransmittedbyvocalsounds.”--StuartC.Poole:AnIntroductiontoLinguistics(1999)13“Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.”Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.

--Ourtextbook(2006)143.DesignFeaturesofLanguageLanguagedistinguisheshumanbeingsfromanimalsinthatitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.15Humanlanguageis‘unique’ArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacement

163.1Arbitrarines

Saussure:theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaningArbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning,evenwithonomatopoeicwords:ThedogbarkswowwowinEnglishbut“汪汪汪”inChinese.

17Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.

Hecameinandsatdown.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.183.2Duality

Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization:Primaryunits‘words’(meaningful)consistofsecondaryunits‘sounds’(meaningless).19Hierarchyoflanguage:stratificationas‘theinfiniteuseoffinitemeans’.Sounds>syllables>morphemes>words>phrases>clauses>sentences/utterances>texts/discourses203.3Creativity

Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.

Wordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings,andcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatusagebefore.

21Birds,bees,crabs,spiders,andmostothercreaturescommunicateinsomeway,buttheinformationimpartedisseverelylimitedandconfinedtoasmallsetofmessages.Becauseofdualitythehumanspeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.

22Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesapotentialtocreateaninfinitenumberofsentences.Forinstance:Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho...233.4Displacement

Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Thus,wecanrefertoConfucius,ortheNorthPole,eventhoughthefirsthasbeendeadforover2550yearsandthesecondissituatedfarawayfromus.24Animalcommunicationisnormallyunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”.Forinstance,awarningcryofabirdinstantlyannouncesdanger.Humanlanguageis

stimulus-free.Whatwearetalkingaboutneednotbetriggeredbyanyexternalstimulusintheworldoranyinternalstate.25Thehoneybee'sdanceexhibitsdisplacementalittlebit:hecanrefertoasourceoffood,whichisremoteintimeandspacewhenhereportsonit.Adogcannottellpeoplethatitsmasterwillbehomeinafewdays.Ourlanguageenablesustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdonotexistordonotyetexist.26Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingusthepowertohandlegeneralizationsandabstractions.Oncewecantalkaboutphysicallydistantthing,weacquiretheabilitytounderstandconceptswhichdenote“non-things”,suchastruthandbeauty.275.Functionsoflanguage

Linguiststalkaboutthefunctionsoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreet,praiseandcondemnpeople,etc.Theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.28ForJakobson,languageisaboveallforcommunication.Whileformanypeople,thepurposeofcommunicationisreferential,forhim(andthePragueschoolstructuralists),referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofcommunication.29Inhisfamousarticle,LinguisticsandPoetics,hedefinedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.Inconjunctionwiththese,Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:30referential(toconveymessageandinformation),poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake),emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions),conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests),phatic(toestablishcommunionwithothers)metalingual(toclearupintentionsandmeanings).31Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcoderespectively.Jakobson'sviewsofthefunctionsoflanguagearestillofgreatimportance.32ContextREFERENTIALAddresserEMOTIVE(e.g.intonationshowinganger)MessagePOETIC(e.g.poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g.imperativesandvocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g.Goodmorning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g.Hello,doyouhearme?)33Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehasideational,interpersonalandtextualfunctions.Ideationalfunctionconstructsamodelofexperienceaswellaslogicalrelations,interpersonalfunctionenactssocialrelationshipsandtextualfunctioncreatesrelevancetocontext.34Inhisearlierworks,Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment:InstrumentalRegulatoryRepresentationalInteractionalPersonalHeuristicImaginative35Stillotherclassificationsemploydifferentcategoriesandusedifferentterms,butallsharealotincommonaboutthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.Belowisasummaryofthemajorfunctionsoflanguage.365.1Informative

functionLanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenfeelneedtospeaktheirthoughtsaloud.Theinformativefunctionisindeedacrucialfunctionoflanguage.

Itisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.37Hallidaynotesthat“Languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’:thatis,ofthespeaker'sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness....385.2Interpersonalfunction

Byfarthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,andbywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.39Forexample,thewaysinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves(e.g.DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant)indicatethevariousgradesofinterpersonalrelations.40Attachedtotheinterpersonalfunctionisitsfunctionofexpressingidentity.Forexample,thechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch,theshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings,thestage-managedaudiencereactionstoTVgameshowsTheyallsignalwhoweareandwherewebelong.41Theinterpersonalfunctionissuchabroadcategorythatitisoftendiscussedundervariousothertermsasinthefollowingperformative,emotive,expressiveandphaticfunctionsoflanguage.Theyseemtoemphasizedifferentaspectsoftheinterpersonalfunction.425.3PerformativefunctionThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformstheback-boneofpragmatics(Chapter8).Forexample,Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.Ibetyoutwopoundsitwillraintomorrow.43Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.44Forexample,inChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosay岁岁平安asameansofcontrollingtheinvisibleforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlivesadversely.Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.455.4EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Itisameansofgettingridofournervousenergywhenweareunderstress,e.g.swearwords,obscenities,involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery;conventionalwords/phrases,e.g.God,My,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh,Oh.46Itisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressivefunction.Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbeentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers.Forexample,amanmaysayOuch!afterstrikingafingernailwithahammer,orhemaymutterDamnwhenrealizingthathehasforgottenanappointment.47ExclamationssuchasMan!Ohboy!andHurrah!

areusuallyutteredwithoutanypurposeofcommunicatingtoothers,butasessentiallyaverbalresponsetoaperson'sownfeelings.Suchexpressiveutterancescanalsobeacommunalresponseofagroupofpeoplewhoreinforceoneanother'sexpressiveuseoflanguagetoshowtheirsolidarity.485.5Phaticcommunion

Phaticcommunionreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage,originatingfromMalinowski'sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Forexample,Mrs.Psneezesviolently.

Mrs.Q:Blessyou.Mrs.P:Thankyou.49Weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.RitualexchangesabouthealthorweathersuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Nicedayoftenstatetheobvious.Yettheyindicatethatachannelofcommunicationisopenifitshouldbeneeded.50Differentcultureshavedifferenttopicsofphaticcommunion.AccordingtoDavidCrystal,theweatherisnotauniversalconversationfillerastheEnglishmightliketothink.Rundiwomen(inBurundi,CentralAfrica),upontakingleave,routinelyandpolitelysay“Imustgohomenow,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.”

515.6Recreationalfunction

Therecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.However,noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.52Totakeoneexample,thewell-knownmovie《刘三姐》featuresasceneof“对歌”(songdueling)mostlyforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.53Ifyouobserveachildren’splay,youwillfindthepowerofsound.Sometimesevennonsensicallyricsperformarecreationalfunctioninthegame:therepetitiverhythmshelptocontrolthegame,andthechildrenplainlytakegreatdelightinit.Adultsalsohavetheirwaytoappreciatelanguageforitsownsake.54Forinstance,poetrywritinggivesthemthepleasureofusinglanguageforitssheerbeauty.VerycloseheretoJakobson'spoeticfunction.555.7Metalingualfunction

Ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.boy(+human,+male,-adult)girl(+human,-male,-adult)man(+human,+male,+adult)woman(+human,-male,+adult)

56Forinstance,insteadofsaying

Thelionchasedtheunicornallroundthetown,theysayAllaroundthetownthelionchasedtheunicorn.Aunicorn57Thisisthemetalingualfunctionoflanguageandmesheswiththethematicfunctionoflanguageinfunctionalgrammar.Itmakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive:Wehumanbeingscantalkabouttalkandthinkaboutthinking,andthusonlyhumanscanaskwhatitmeanstocommunicate,tothink,tobehuman.586.WhatisLinguistics?ThescientificstudyofhumanlanguageAimsoflinguistictheory:Whatisknowledgeoflanguage?(Competence)Howisknowledgeoflanguageacquired?(Acquisition)Howisknowledgeoflanguageputtouse?(Performance/language

processing)59Agrammarincludeseverythingoneknowsaboutthestructureofone’slanguage:PhoneticsandPhonology

(thesoundsandthesoundsystemorpatterns)Lexicon

(thewordsorvocabularyinthementaldictionary)Morphology

(thestructureofwords)Syntax

(thestructureofphrasesandsentencesandtheconstraintsonwell-formednessofsentences)Semantics

(themeaningofwordsandsentences)607.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmatics617.1PhoneticsPhoneticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.62Articulatoryphoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade.(fromthespeaker’spointofview)Acousticphoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsaretransmitted.(aboutthesoundwaves)Auditoryphoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsarereceived.(fromthehearer’spointofview)637.2Phonology

Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointofdeparture.Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.647.3Morphology

Morphologyisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning—morphemesandword-formationprocesses.Althoughmanypeoplethinkofwordsasthebasicmeaningfulelementsofalanguage，manywordscanbebrokendownintostillsmallerunits,calledmorphemes.65Morphemesservedifferentpurposes.Somederivenewwordsbychangingthemeaningorthepartofspeech,othersonlyrefineandgiveextragrammaticalinformationaboutthealreadyexistingmeaningofaword.e.g.man,color,-ful,-ment,–tion,-lypre-,post-,dis--ed,-s667.4Syntax

Syntaxisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectsentences.Ihitthemanwithahammer.三个男人和女人的故事67Weknowthatwordsareorganizedintostructuresmorethanjustwordorder.Thechildrenwatched[thefireworkfromthehill].Thechildrenwatched[thefirework][fromthehill].Thechickenistoohottoeat.

687.5Semantics

Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.e.g.Thehamburgeratetheman.69Thefollowingarewhatthekeyconceptslooklike:semanticcomponentse.g.boy[+human][+male][-adult]denotationofwordsbasic\logicmeaningofawordsenserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymy

e.g.broad-widemom-motherhide-concealhappy-sadalive-deadtrue-falsesenserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailmentandpresuppositionandothers.707.6Pragmatics

Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretation.71CooperativePrinciples(Grice)

QuantityMaximQualityMaximMannersMaximRelationMaxim

SpeechAct

LocutionaryAct

IllocutionaryActPerlocutionaryAct

e.g.It’scoldhere.Thetemperatureislow.Couldyouturnontheheatingsystem.

728.Macrolinguistics

微观语言学是对语言结构和系统的研究。宏观语言学则扩充到其它的领域。Linguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Otherdisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnography,thescienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.arealsopreoccupiedwithlanguage.73AlthoughSaussure'sgoalwastoestablishtheautonomyoflinguistics,givingitawell-definedsubjectofstudyandfreeingitfromrelianceonotherdisciplines,withitscomingofagelinguisticsisdevelopinginteractivelinkswithothersciences.Thecentralgoalofdescribingtheunderlyingsystemremains:thisistheprovinceofgeneral,descriptivelinguistics.74Butsincelanguagehasbothindividualandsocialaspects,itisnaturallyofinteresttopsychologistsandsociologistsamongothers.Thereforeitisnotsurprisingthatwehavesomebranchesofmacrolinguisticsthatshowaninterdisciplinarynaturefromtheirverynames:758.1Psycholinguistics

LanguageacquisitionLADlanguageacquisitiondeviceLanguagecomprehensionLanguageproduction768.2Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguisticsisthestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,thecharacteristicsoftheirfunctions,andthecharacteristicsoftheirspeakersasthesethreeconstantlyinteractandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.

77Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguagein

relationtosocialfactors,thatis,socialclass,educationallevelandtypeofeducation,age,sex,ethnicorigin,etc.e.g.sexisminChinese788.3Anthropologicallinguistics

Anthropologyandlinguisticsbecamecloselyassociatedintheearlydaysofanthropologicalfieldworkwhenanthropologistsenlistedthehelpoflinguiststostudyunwrittenlanguages.Incontrastwithotherlinguists,then,anthropologicallinguistsareinterestedprimarilyinthehistoryandstructureofformerlyunwrittenlanguages.79Becauseanunwrittenlanguagemustbeheardinordertobestudied,itdoesnotleaveanytracesonceitsspeakersdiedoff.Anthropologicallinguistsmustbegininthepresent,withcomparisonsofcontemporarylanguages.Thentheymaydrawinferencesaboutthekindsofchangeinlanguagethatmayhaveoccurredinthepastandthatmayaccountforsimilaritiesanddifferencesobservedinthepresent.808.4Computationallinguistics

Computationallinguisticscentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage(alsoknownas“naturallanguage”,todistinguishitfromcomputerlanguages).81MachineTranslationCorpusLinguistics

InformationRetrieval829.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

Descriptivevs.prescriptiveSynchronicvs.diachronicLangue&paroleCompetenceandperformance839.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Don'tsayX.Peopl