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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper11095
WomenandClimateAdaptationinRuralSub-SaharanAfrica
ConstraintsandResearchPriorities
ClaraDelavallade
MélanieGittard
JuliaVaillant
WORLDBANKGROUP
AfricaRegion
GenderInnovationLabApril2025
PolicyResearchWorkingPaper11095
Abstract
Sub-SaharanAfricaishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange,withruralwomendis-proportionatelyaffectedduetopre-existinggenderinequalitiesthatbothincreasetheirneedforadaptationandconstraintheirabilitytoadoptstrategies.Thispaperreviewsempiricalevidenceonkeybarrierstowomen’sclimateadaptation,identifiescriticalknowledgegaps,andoutlinesagender-informedpolicyandresearchagenda.Focusingonon-farmandoff-farmadaptationstrategies‒includingclimate-smartagriculture,weatherinsurance,incomediversification,andmigration‒thepaperhighlightskeyconstraintslimitingwomen’sadaptivecapacity:financiallimitations,restrictedassetcon-trolandownership,gendernormspositioningwomenasprimarycaregiversandshockabsorbers,lowerhumanand
socialcapital,andlimitedaccesstoclimateandtechnologyinformation.Substantialgapsremaininunderstandinghowwomen’sfinancialliteracy,institutionaltrust,riskandcli-mateperception,andsocialnetworksaffecttheiradaptation.Evidence-supportedinterventionsincludeinformationprovisiononclimate-smartagriculturaltechnologiesandsocialprotection,whileemergingbutlessestablishedinter-ventionsincludesocio-emotionalskillsprograms,childcare,andlandtitling.Underexploredyetpromisinginterven-tionsinvolveexpandingwomen’saccesstodigitalclimateservices,strengtheningsocialnetworks,andengagingmeninshiftingintra-householdroles.Significantknowledgegapspersistregardingthemainconstraintswomenfaceinadoptingmigrationasanadaptationstrategy.
ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheGenderInnovationLab,AfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat
/prwp.Theauthorsmaybe
contactedatjvaillant@andcdelavallade@.
ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam
WomenandClimateAdaptationinRuralSub-SaharanAfrica:ConstraintsandResearchPriorities
ClaraDelavallade*,M´elanieGittardt,andJuliaVaillant‡
Keywords:Gender,climatechange,adaptation,agriculturalpractices,migration
JELcodes:Q54,J16,O13,D63,Q15
*AfricaGenderInnovationLab,WorldBank.cdelavallade@
tStanfordUniversity,CenteronFoodSecurityandtheEnvironment(FSE).mgittard@‡AfricaGenderInnovationLab,WorldBank.jvaillant@.
WearegratefultoCiceroBragaandLaurelMorrisonforexcellentresearchassistance,KathleenBeegle,SteveCommins,FranziskaDeininger,MenaalEbrahim,JoaoMontalvao,RachaelPierotti,PieterSerneels,CarlyTrachtman,DiegoUbfalandcolleaguesattheAfricaGenderInnovationLabforinsightfulcommentsonearlierversionsofthepaper.ThisworkwasfundedbytheWorldBankUmbrellaFundforGenderEquality(UFGE).Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheWorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
2
Introduction
Sub-SaharanAfricahasexperiencedincreasingclimatevariability,withextremeweathereventsandshiftingagriculturalseasonsdisruptinglivelihoodsandforcingfarmerstoadapt
(Nicholson
,
2018;
Panthouetal.,
2018
).Whileadaptationiscritical,rigorousevidenceonboththeadoptionandeffectivenessofadaptationstrategiesremainslimited,particularlyinlow-incomecontexts(
Ferigaetal.,
2025
).Arobustevidencebaseontheeffectivenessofvariousadaptationpoliciesappearsnecessary,asmarketfailuresandresourceconstraintscanlimitindividuals’abilitytomakeoptimaladaptationinvestments(
Carletonetal.,
2024
).Climatechangeimpactsarenotevenlydistributed.Pre-existinggenderinequalitiesheightenwomen’svulnerabilitywhilerestrictingtheirabilitytoadoptadaptivestrategies,exacerbat-ingpovertyandwideningdisparities(seeBox
1
).Addressingtheseconstraintsisessentialforequitableadaptationandresilience-building.
Thispapersynthesizesempiricalevidenceongender-specificconstraintsinclimateadap-tation,identifyingpolicy-relevantinterventionsandresearchgaps.Itexaminesfourkeyadaptationstrategies:on-farmadaptation,includingclimate-smartagriculture(CSA)andweatherinsurance,andoff-farmadaptation,includingincomediversificationandmigration.Additionally,itassessestheroleofadaptivesocialprotectioninimprovingaccesstothesestrategiesforvulnerablewomen.Giventheimmediateandsevereeffectsofclimatechangeinlow-incomecountries,thispaperfocusesonadaptationstrategiesratherthanmitigation(seeBox
2
).Thereviewhighlightsthreekeyfindings.
First,womenfacegreaterbarriersthanmeninadoptingclimatechangeadaptationstrate-gies,bothon-farmandoff-farm.Whilemuchoftheliteratureiscorrelational,emergingexperimentalevidencesuggeststhatstructuralconstraints,ratherthanintrinsicpreferences,explainlowerfemaleadoptionratesofCSAandweatherinsurance.Womenalsoencountergreaterchallengesinincomediversificationandmigration,whichremainmale-dominated.
Second,thispaperidentifiesgender-specificconstraintstoclimateadaptationthatgobeyondthosefacedbymen.Women’son-farmadaptation,particularlyinvestmentinCSAtechnologies,ishinderedbylandtenureinsecurity,limitedaccesstoclimateinformation,andlowerhouseholdbargainingpower,makingriskierinvestmentsevenmorechallenging.Theirhigherriskaversion,drivenbyeconomicandstructuralfactors,furtherreducesCSAadoption.Maledominanceinagriculturalnetworksalsorestrictswomen’saccesstoknowl-edgeanddecision-makingopportunities.Limitedinformationcontributestowomen’slowuptakeofweatherinsurance,compoundedbytheirgreateridiosyncraticrisks—includinghealthshockslinkedtofertilityandchildcare—andtheirroleas’shockabsorbers’,whichleadthemtoprioritizeemergencysavings.Householdresponsibilitiesfurtherconstraintheirengagementinoff-farmactivities,reducingopportunitiesforincomediversificationandmi-grationinresponsetoclimateshocks.Thesechallengesareexacerbatedbylowexpectedreturns,limitedresources,andrestrictedbargainingpower.Theeffectivenessofadaptivesocialprotectioninsupportingwomen’sclimateresiliencedependsonhowwellprogramsaddressgenderedconstraints,includingmobilityrestrictions,bargainingpowerimbalances,anddomesticresponsibilities.
Third,anevidencemapcategorizesadaptationinterventionsbythestrengthofempir-icalsupport.Credibleinterventions—supportedbysubstantialevidenceofeffectiveness—includeCSAinformationprogramstargetingwomenorbothspousesandsocialprotec-
3
tioninitiativeslikecashtransfersandeconomicinclusionprograms.Emerginginterventions—suchassocio-emotionalskillstraining,childcareservices,andlandtitlingprograms—showpromisebutrequirefurthervalidation.Frontierinterventions—whererigorousevi-denceiscurrentlylacking—includedigitalclimateinformationservices,gender-responsiveweatherinsurance,andnorm-changinginitiativeschallenginggenderrolesandenhancingwomen’sdecision-makingpower.Furtherresearchisneededtoassessthemosteffectivegender-sensitiveprovisionsinadaptivesocialprotectionprograms,andtheonesthattrans-latemostintoadoptionofindividualadaptationstrategies.
Significantknowledgegapsremainforacomprehensiveunderstandingofgenderdynam-icsinclimatechangeadaptation.Household-levelagriculturaldataoftenobscureintra-householdinequalities,limitingunderstandingofwomen’sconstraintsinCSAadoptionontheplotstheymanage
.1
Thecausaleffectsofclimateinformationonwomen’sriskprefer-encesandadaptationdecisionsarestillunder-examined.Furtherresearchisalsoneededonhowtimeconstraints,householdstructureandintra-householddynamicsinfluencewomen’sparticipationinoff-farmemployment,andontheroleofgendernormsandlandtenurein-securityinshapingwomen’smigrationdecisions.Additionally,littleisknownabouttheadaptivecapacityofwomenleftbehindwhenmenmigrate.
Theremainderofthepaperisorganizedasfollows.WepresentourmethodologicalframeworkinSection
1.
Wereviewtheevidenceongendergapsintheadoptionoffouradaptivestrategies:CSA(Section
2
),weatherinsurance(Section
3
),incomediversification(Section
4
)andmigration(Section
5
).Section
6
highlightsthekeychallengesadaptivesocialprotectionmustovercometoensuregreateraccesstotheseadaptivestrategiesformorevulnerablewomen.WepresentinSection
7
anevidencemapreviewingexperimentalevidenceoninterventionsseekingtoaddressthekeyconstraintspreviouslyidentifiedforeachadaptationstrategy.WeoutlinepriorityresearchquestionsinSection
8
beforeconcluding.
1MethodologicalNote
Thistargetedreviewoftherecentliteraturesynthesizesqualitative,empirical,andexperi-mentalstudiesongenderdifferencesinclimateadaptation.Wedistinguishbetweendescrip-tiveanalyses,whichdocumentadaptationdisparities,andcausalanalyses,furtherdistin-guishingbetweenquasi-experimentalandexperimentalstudies.
Thereviewisdividedintothreemainsections.Thefirstsectiontacklesevidenceongenderdifferencesandconstraintsfacedbywomenandincludesbothqualitativeandcausalstudies,aswellasinterventionsthatshedlightongender-specificbarriers.Thesecondsectionreviewsinterventionsthataddresstheseconstraintsinanevidencemap,citingexperimentalevidenceshowingproofofeffectivenessandhighlightingpromisingbutuntestedapproachesforfutureresearch.Thethirdsectionpresentskeyresearchgapsidentifiedinthefirsttwosections.
Wedefineclimateadaptationatthemicrolevel,focusingonon-farmandoff-farmadap-tationamongruralandagriculturalpopulationsinSub-SaharanAfrica.Broadermacro
1TheLSMS-ISAsurveysareanotableexception.Theycollectplot-leveldatawhichprovidegender-disaggregatedindicatorsattheplot-managerlevel,criticalforidentifyingbarrierstowomen’sagriculturalproductivity.
4
Box1.Gendergapsinvulnerabilitytoclimatechange
Climatechangedisproportionatelyaffectswomen,exacerbatingpre-existinggenderin-equalitiesinhealth,safety,livelihoods,andagriculturalproductivity.InSub-SaharanAfrica,womencontributesignificantlytoagriculturallaboryetfacelowerproductivityduetolimitedaccesstoinputs,land,andmarketopportunities(
Kilicetal.,
2015;
Aguilar
etal.,
2015;
Alik-Lagrangeetal.,
2025
),whileexperiencinghigherfoodinsecurityfollow-ingclimateshocks(
Kakotaetal.,
2011;
Zakarietal.,
2014
)andincreasedmaternalandinfanthealthrisksfromrisingtemperatures(
Graceetal.,
2015
)
.a
Climateshocksalsoheightengender-basedviolencerisks(
Brown,
2008
).Droughtsandfloodsincreaseintimatepartnerviolence(
Coolsetal.,
2020;
AbionaandKoppensteiner,
2016
),sexualexploitation(
UNHCR,
2022
),andfeminicide(
Miguel,
2005
).Drought-inducedincomeshocksraisechildmarriagerates(
Cornoetal.,
2020;
HotteandMarazyan,
2020
),reinforcingfertilityandadversehealthoutcomesandunderminingwomen’sedu-cation,laborforceparticipationandagency.
Economically,climateshocksincreasewomen’sunpaiddomesticandcareworkandre-stricttheireducationandlabormarketparticipation(
Kakotaetal.,
2011;
Moshoeshoe
etal.,
2021
).Women’sresponsibilities,suchasfetchingwater,expandinresponsetoclimatestressorsandtheyaremorelikelythanmentoexitemploymentandstruggletore-entertheworkforcepost-shock(
Ermanetal.,
2021
).Furthermore,girlsaremorelikelythanboystobewithdrawnfromschooltocontributetodomesticduties,exacerbatinggenderdisparitiesineducation(
Bjo…rkman-Nyqvist,
2013;
Babugura,
2008
).
aGender-sensitiveadaptationstrengthenshouseholdresilience,asconstraintsfacedbywomeninruralcouplescanweakentheentirefamily’sabilitytocopewithclimateshocks.Sincehouseholddecisionsareoftenjointendeavors,addressingwomen’sadaptationbarriersnotonlyempowersthembutalsopromotesinclusivedecision-makingandefficientresourceallocationacrossthehousehold.
policies,suchasgreenjobsandsustainabilityinitiatives,areexcluded,asaredownstreamconsumersofagriculturalproducts.
Thereviewincludesbothstudiesexplicitlyexamininggenderdifferencesandthosere-vealinggenderedheterogeneity.WhiletheprimaryfocusisSub-SaharanAfrica,studiesfromotherlow-incomeregionsareincludedwhenSub-SaharanAfricanevidenceisinsufficient.Wealsodistinguishbetweengenderdifferenceswithinhouseholds(malevs.femalehouseholdmembers)andbetweenhouseholds(male-vs.female-headedhouseholds),specifyingthesedistinctionsthroughout.
2Climate-SmartAgriculture
TheadoptionofCSAiscriticalforreducingfoodinsecurityamongsmallholderfarmersfacingunpredictablerainfall.TheWorldBankdefinesCSAas“anintegratedapproachtomanaginglandscapes,cropland,livestock,forestandfisheriesthataddresstheinterlinkedchallengesoffoodsecurityandclimatechange”(
WorldBank,
2023
).
5
Box2.Whyfocusonclimateadaptation(ratherthanmitigation)?
Climatechangeandpovertyaredeeplyinterconnected,asclimateshocksthreatentopushmillionsintoextremepoverty,particularlyinSub-SaharanAfrica,whereagriculturere-mainshighlyclimate-sensitive(
RozenbergandHallegatte,
2015
).DespitecontributingminimallytoglobalCO2emissions(
IPCC,
2022
),theregionfacesdisproportionatevul-nerabilityduetoitsrelianceonrain-fedagriculture,limitedeconomicdiversification,andconstrainedadaptivecapacity.
Whileglobalmitigationeffortsarecriticalforlimitinglong-termclimatechange,adap-tationisthemoreimmediateandpressingpriorityforlow-incomecountriesthatalreadyexperiencesevereclimateshocks.Unlikemitigation,whichfocusesonreducingemissions,adaptationdirectlyenhancesresiliencebyenablinghouseholdsandcommunitiestoadjusttoclimatechange’sinevitableconsequences.Strengtheningadaptivecapacityisparticu-larlyurgentforwomenwhoaredisproportionatelyaffectedbyclimateshocks,notonlyasamatterofequitybutalsoasanecessaryconditionforbothpovertyreductionandsustainabledevelopmentinclimate-vulnerableregions.
a
aEstimatesindicatethatSub-SaharanAfricawillrequire$15billionannuallyforagricultureandfoodsystemadaptation,whilethecostofinactioncouldbemorethan10timeshigher,surpassing$200billionannually(
Ijjasz-Vasquezetal.,
2021
).
FarmersemployvariousCSAstrategiesincludingcropdiversification(
Mertzetal.,
2009
),drought-resistantcrops(
Emericketal.,
2016
),diversificationbetweencropsandlivestock
(Seo
,
2010
),treeplanting(
Tambo,
2013
),agro-forestry,landfragmentation(
Veljanoska,
2018
),adjustedcropchoices(
Belowetal.,
2010
)andplantingdates(
Adzawlaetal.,
2019
),watermanagement(
Fishman,
2013
),improvedseedvarieties,moderninputs(
Derconand
Christiaensen
,
2011;
TambetandStopnitzky,
2021
),irrigation,soilconservation(
DiFalco
andVeronesi
,
2013
),andconservationagriculture(
Beamanetal.,
2021
).
However,costlyon-farmadaptationstrategiescantrapsmallholderfarmersincyclesofpoverty(
DerconandChristiaensen,
2011
).InMalawi,climate-inducedpovertytrapsconfinepoorerhouseholdstolow-valuemaizecultivation,restrictingtheirabilitytoadoptCSApractices,suchasimprovedseedvarietiesandfertilizers(
Sesmeroetal.,
2018
).BarrierstoCSAadoptionincluderesourceconstraints;smallfarmsizes;limitedaccesstocredit,marketsandknowledge;aswellaslandtenureinsecurity(
Descheemaekeretal.,
2016;
Mershaand
Duguma
,
2019
).
Genderdisparitiesinadoptionrates
QualitativeandcorrelationalevidenceongenderdifferencesinCSAadoptionyieldsmixedfindings.Somestudiesreporthigheradoptionratesofwaterconservationandcropdiversifi-cationamongfemale-headedhouseholdsinSouthAfrica,ZambiaandZimbabwe(
Nhemachena
andHassan
,
2007
)andgreaterintercroppingamonghouseholdswithmorefemalemembers
(Beninetal.
,
2005
).Othersfindnosignificantgenderdifferences,asshowninalarge-scalesurveyacross11Africancountries(
Maddison,
2007
)andastudyofagro-pastoralistsin
6
Kenya(
Silvestrietal.,
2012
).
However,mostresearch—includingrecentexperimentalevidence—findsthatmenadoptCSAstrategiesathigherratesthanwomen.Male-headedhouseholdsaremorelikelytoinvestinnewagriculturaltechnologiesandirrigationinUganda(
Nabikoloetal.,
2012
)andGhana(
Adzawlaetal.,
2019
).InEthiopia,male-headedhouseholdsaremorelikelytoconservesoil,changecropvarieties,planttrees(
Deressaetal.,
2009
),anduseirrigation
(GebrehiwotandVeen,
2013
).InGhana,menarealsomorelikelytoplantearly-maturinganddrought-tolerantseedvarieties(
Adzawlaetal.,
2019
),whileinNigeria,womenadoptimprovedriceproductiontechnologiesatlowerratesthanmen(
ArimiandOlajide,
2016
).Acomprehensivereviewsimilarlyfindsthatwomenlagbehindmeninadoptinghigh-yieldingcropvarietiesandagriculturaltechnologies(
Doss,
2001
).ExperimentalevidencefromNigersuggeststhatwomenadoptCSAstrategiesatlowerratesduetostructuralbarrierssuchaslimitedlandownershipandrestrictedfinancialaccess(
AkerandJack,
2023
)
.2
Emergingevidencesuggeststhatwhenwomenhaveaccesstoreliableinformationandresources,theyfavorlong-term,conservativeadaptationstrategiesovershort-termcopingmechanisms.InEastAfrica,womenperceiveconservationagricultureasmorebeneficialthanmendo(
Murageetal.,
2015
).InUganda,womenaremoreinclinedtotransitionfromsubsistencetocashcrops,facilitatingincomesmoothingovertime(seeBox
3
formoredetailsongenderedcropspecialization).Duringclimaticshocks,womenreallocatelandtomarket-orientedcrops,whilemenprioritizeoff-farmemployment(
Agamileetal.,
2021
).Whilethesefindingsremainsuggestive,theyunderscoretheneedforfurthercausalanalysisofwomen’sperceptionsandpreferencesforCSApractices.Existingevidencesuggeststhatexternalconstraints,ratherthanintrinsicpreferences,primarilydrivewomen’sloweradoptionratesandrelianceonshort-termcopingstrategies.Thenextsectionexaminestheseconstraintsindetail.
Box3.Genderedcropspecialization
AcrossAfrica,agriculturallaborisgendered,withmenprimarilycultivatingcashandexportcropswhilewomengrowsubsistencecrops(
Croppenstedtetal.,
2013
).Women’sfocusonlower-risk,lower-returncropssupportshouseholdfoodsecurityduringclimateshocks(
Duflo,
2003;
LovoandVeronesi,
2019
)butlimitstheirmarketaccess,reinforc-ingpovertytrapsandconstraininginvestmentsinadaptationstrategiessuchasCSA,weatherinsurance,incomediversification,andmigration.InUganda,
Agamileetal.
(2021
)findthatdrought-inducedlaborshiftsalterhouseholdcropallocation.Asmenseekoff-farmwork,womenincreasefarmlaborandreallocatelandfromsubsistencetocashcrops.However,restrictivegendernormscontinuetolimitwomen’sengagementinincome-generatingagriculture,constraininglong-termadaptationdespitetheirpotentialpreferenceforcommercialcrops.
2Thereviewofgenderdisparitiesinadoptionratesdepartsfromtheunitaryhouseholdmodel,recognizingthatinmanySub-SaharanAfricancontexts,husbandsandwivesmanageseparateplotsandmakeindividualfarmingdecisions.
7
Women’sconstraintstoadoptionofCSA
Riskaversion
Extensiveevidenceindicatesthatwomenexhibitgreaterriskaversionthanmen(
Nelson,
2015
;
SarinandWieland,
2016
),whichcanhindertheiradoptionofclimateadaptationstrate-gies
.3
Riskpreferencesshapelandusedecisions(
Chavasetal.,
2010
),agriculturalchoices
(Adgeretal.,
2008;
Charnessetal.,
2013
),andadaptationstrategies(
TamandMcDaniels,
2013
).Morerisk-aversefarmerstendtousefewerinputs,investlessinnewtechnologies,andprioritizelower-risk,lower-returnstrategies(
Molua,
2011
).Empiricalevidencesupportsthispattern.Riskaversionreduceswomen’sadoptionofproductivity-enhancingagriculturalin-puts,asseeninlowerfertilizeruseamongfemalefarmersinEthiopiaandKenyaandlimitedtechnologyadoptioninCameroon(
Kebede,
2022;
SheremenkoandMagnan,
2015;
Molua,
2011
).
Informationonclimatechangeandweatherforecasts
Unequalaccesstoinformationisamajorbarriertowomen’sadoptionofCSA(
Quisumb-
ingandPandolfelli
,
2010
).Reliableinformationhelpscorrectmisperceptionsaboutclimatechange(Box
4
),updatefarmers’beliefs(
Burligetal.,
2024
),andreduceuncertaintysur-roundingCSAinvestments.
Giventhateconomicandstructuralfactorsinducewomentendtobemorerisk-aversethanmen,improvingaccesstoclimateinformationiscritical.ClimateInformationServices(CIS),whichprovidetimelyweatherupdates,havebeenshowntoenhanceCSAadaptationcapacity(
Autioetal.,
2021;
Maggioetal.,
2019;
McKuneetal.,
2018;
NgigiandMuange,
2022
;
Yegbemeyetal.,
2023
).AframedfieldexperimentinZambiashowsthatCISenabledbothmenandwomentoinvestinhigher-returntechnologies,demonstratingthepotentialofinformationtoreduceriskaversionandpromoteCSAadoption(
Krameretal.,
2023a
).
WomenfaceadditionalbarrierstoCIS,especiallyinrainfedagriculturalsystems(
Roudier
etal.
,
2014;
Talletal.,
2018;
Autioetal.,
2021
).InKenya,menhavegreateraccesstoearlywarningsystems,whilewomenrelyonweatherforecasts,whichhavelessimpactonCSAadoption(
NgigiandMuange,
2022
).Limitedsmartphoneownershipfurtherrestrictswomen’saccesstomobile-basedservices,leavingthemdependentonradiobroadcasts(
Partey
etal.
,
2020;
NgigiandMuange,
2022
).Culturalbeliefsmayalsounderminetrustinweatherforecasts,reducingCISuseinsomeregions(
Dioufetal.,
2019
).EvenwhenwomenaccessCIS,householdpowerdynamicsmayconstraintheirabilitytoactontheinformation.InZambia,providingforecastinformationtobothspousesimprovedjointdecision-making,highlightinghowintra-householddynamicsshapeCSAadoption(
Krameretal.,
2023a
).
Insum,women’slimitedaccesstoandbenefitfromclimateinformationstemsfromdigitalexclusion,climatemisperceptions,andhouseholddecision-makingconstraints,butlittleisknownofinterventionsthatenhancewomen’saccesstoCISandabilitytoactuponthis
3Women’sgreaterriskaversionisduetoacombinationofeconomicdependence,socialroles,limitedaccesstoresources,andstructuralinequalities.Theirprimarycaregivingresponsibilities,loweraccesstoinformationandnetworks,increasedvulnerabilitytoeconomicandenvironmentalshocksandculturalnormscontributetomorecautiousdecision-making.
8
information.Theinteractionbetweenwomen’sriskaversion,CISaccess,andCSAadoptionalsoremainsanopenquestion(seeSection
8
foradetailedresearchagenda).
Box4.Climatechangeperceptionandadaptation
Accurateclimatechangeperceptioniscrucialforadoptinglong-termadaptationstrate-gies,asperceptionisthefirststepintheadaptationprocessandmayaffectaccesstoclimateinformation,asseeninGhana(
Parteyetal.,
2020
)andinKenya(
Ngigiand
Muange,
2022
).Theliteraturesuggeststhateducationandexperienceshapeclimateper-ceptionandadaptation(
Maddison,
2007;
Tambo,
2013;
Silvestrietal.,
2012;
Komowski
etal.,
2015;
Atchikpaetal.,
2017;
Gittard,
2024b
),withexperiencedfarmersmorelikelytoperceiveclimateimpactsandthosewithhighereducationmoreinclinedtoadoptadap-tationstrategies(
IshayaandAbaje,
2008;
Maddison,
2007
).Fewstudiesexaminegenderdifferences.InSenegal,whilewomenhavelessaccesstoCISthanmen,akeyreasonexplainingbothwomen’sandmen’sreducedaccesstoCISmaybelimitedperceptionsofclimate-relatedrisksandusefulnes
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