unidir -重新审视冲突背景下性暴力的常见观念：来自尼日利亚西北部、乍得湖盆地和哥伦比亚的证据

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ReconsideringCommonConceptions

AroundSexualViolenceinConflictContexts

EvidencefromtheNorthWestofNigeria,theLakeChadBasinandColombia

AnamikaMadhuraj,FrancescaBatault,andSofiaRivas

Introduction

Sexualviolenceinconflictsettingsisoftenframedinnarrowterms—strategicallyde-ployed,militarized,andperpetratedbyarmedactors.Yet,thisframingcanobscuremorecomplexrealities.DrawingontheManagingExitsfromArmedConflict(MEAC)Project’sevidencefromtheNorthWestofNigeria,theLakeChadBasin(LCB),andColombia,thisbriefinterrogatesandexpandsuponsixcommonassumptionsaboutconflict-relatedsexualviolence(CRSV).Itassesseswhethertheseas-sumptionsholdinthesettingswhereMEACconductsstudies,orwhethertherealityismorenuancedandvariedthanoftenunder-stood.

Infast-movinghumanitarianandpolicyen-vironments,simplifiednarrativesaboutCRSVmaytakeholdoutofnecessity.Butwhenthesenarrativesbecomeentrenched,theyriskobscuringsurvivorexperiencesandmisdirectingsupport.Bycritically

Photo:ShaadiAhmadionUnsplash

examiningthesecommonconceptions,thisbriefsurfaceskeytensions,contradic-tions,andoverlookeddynamicsthatchal-lengesomedominantunderstandingsofCRSV.

Ratherthanreinforcingasingularnarrative,thefindingspointtotheneedformorecon-textualizedandsurvivor-informedre-sponses.Effectivepreventionandre-sponseeffortsmustgrapplewiththefullcomplexityofCRSV—thediversityofper-petrators,hiddenforms,andlastingconse-quences—inordertopreventCRSVandmeaningfullysupportthoseaffected.

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Methodology

ThisbriefisinformedbyseveralMEACre-searchcomponentsincluding:

•AphonesurveyconductedbetweenJanuaryandMarch2024with2,947communityrespondentsfromKat-sina,Sokoto,andZamfaraStatesintheNorthWestofNigeria.

•AphonesurveyconductedbetweenAprilandJune2024with3,632re-spondentsfromBorno,Adamawa,andYobeStatesintheNorthEastofNigeria,including2,230peopleun-affiliatedwitharmedgroups,905formerassociatesofJASorISWAPwhowerelargelypartofthemassexits,

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and508formerandcurrentaffiliatesofcommunitysecurityac-torssuchastheCivilianJointTaskForce(CJTF).

•Anin-personsurveyconductedinApril2024with517respondentsintheFarNorthandNorthRegionsofCameroon,including305peopleunaffiliatedwitharmedgroups,187formerassociatesofJASorISWAP,and25menandboyformerandcur-rentaffiliatesofcommunitysecurityactorssuchastheComitésdeVigi-lance(COVIS).

•Anin-personsurveyconductedinApril2024with387respondentsintheLacRegionofChad,including221respondentsunaffiliatedwitharmedgroups,159formerassoci-atesofJASorISWAPandninemenandboyformerandcurrentaffiliatesofcommunitysecurityactorssuchastheCOVIS.

•Twentyfocusgroups(involving45womenandgirlsand44menandboys)livinginMaiduguriinNorthEastNigeria,includingtheKondugaIDPcamp,theBamaIDPcampaswellasneighbouringcommunitiesinAprilandMay2024.

•Threefocusgroupsandtwointer-viewsconductedwithleadersoftheNasaIndigenouscommunity,spe-cificallymembersofAssociationofIndigenousCabildos

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ofNorthernCaucaandtheNasaIndigenousGuard,ofNorthernCauca,Colom-bia,fromJuly8to11,2024.

•Aseriesofongoinginterviewswithvariousexperts–includingacadem-ics,practitioners,andfirstlinepro-viders–withextensiveexperienceworkingtoaddressCRSVagainstmenandboysinColombiaandbe-yond.

1Following2021deathofJASleaderAbubakarShekau,some160,000peopleassociatedwiththegrouporlivinginareasunderitscontrolarethoughttohaveexitedBokoHaramandsurrenderedtotheNigerianauthorities.Theseexitscontinuetoday,althoughatslowerrates.

2TheAssociationofIndigenousCabildosofNorthernCauca(ACIN)promotesthepoliticalandterritorialdevelop-mentoftheNasapeoplebyprovidingpoliticalandorganizationalsupporttothecommunity,strengtheningtheTra-ditionalAuthorities,andconsolidatingtheirownformofgovernment.

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ParticipantphotofromparticipatoryprogrammeinJambaló,Colombia.F.,17yearsold

1.Sexualviolenceisnotonlyacon-sequenceofconflict;itcanalsobeadriverofconflictparticipation

TheUnitedNationsdefinesCRSVas“rape,sexualslavery,forcedprostitution,forcedpregnancy,forcedabortion,enforcedsteri-lization,forcedmarriageandanyotherformofsexualviolenceofcomparablegravityperpetratedagainstwomen,men,girlsorboysthatisdirectlyorindirectlylinkedtoaconflict.Thatlinkmaybeevidentinthepro-fileoftheperpetrator...theprofileofthevic-tim...[or]theclimateofimpunity,whichisgenerallyassociatedwithStatecollapse,cross-borderconsequencessuchasdis-placementortrafficking,and/orviolationsofaceasefireagreement.Thetermalsoen-compassestraffickinginpersonsforthepurposeofsexualviolenceorexploitation,whencommittedinsituationsofconflict.

”3

CRSVisoftenframedasaconsequenceofconflict,whichoccursafterhostilitieshavebrokenoutandisdrivenbymilitarizationor

usedasastrategictacticbypartiestoanarmedconflict.

EvidencefromColombia

MEAC’sresearchinColombia,however,challengesthisnarrowframing.Incollabo-rationwiththeAssociationofIndigenousCabidosofNorthernCauca(ACIN),MEACconductedqualitativeresearchtoexploretherelationshipbetweensexualviolenceandrecruitmentintoarmedgroupsintheNasaIndigenouscommunityofNorthernCauca

.4

Evidencefromthisstudysuggestsareversedynamic:somesurvivorsofsex-ualviolencejoinFARCdissidentgroupsinsearchofjustice,partlybecausethemech-anismsavailabletothemintheircommuni-tiesfailtodeliverjusticeandaccountabilityforperpetrators.Theevidencesuggeststhatinthisparticularcommunity,sexualvi-olenceismostcommonlyperpetratedbyfamilymembers,localauthorities,andothermembersoftheNasacommunity,ra-therthanarmedactors.

3UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,

“Conflict-relatedSexualViolence,ReportoftheUnitedNationsSecretary-Gen-

eral

”UnitedNations,19March2019,S/2019/280

4ÁngelaAguirre,ÁngelaGómez,JuanitaVélez,SofiaRivas,Dr.SiobhanO’Neil,“

SexualviolenceandtheStruggle

forJustice:TheInvolvementofIndigenousNasaSurvivorsinArmedGroupsinNorthernCauca”,

FindingsReport

38,UNIDIR,Geneva,2024.

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Gendernormsandrolesfurthercreateddy-namicsthatcontributedtotheperpetuationofsexualviolenceintheNasacommunity.WhiletheNasaworldviewpromoteshar-monyandcomplementaritybetweengen-ders,womeninleadershiproles–notablyfromtheIndigenousGuard

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orfromtheWomen’sDepartment

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oftheACIN–re-portedthat,inpractice,Nasawomen’svoicesandexperiencesareoftenareside-lined.Thisexclusioncontributestotheper-petuationofsexualviolenceandtheongo-ingimpunitysurroundingthesecases.Theproblemisfurthercompoundedbylocalmen’slackofacknowledgementofthere-currenceofintra-familyandintra-commu-nityabuse,oftendownplayingtheirroleinperpetuatingsuchviolence.Thisdenialandinternalnormalizationofdomesticandsex-ualviolencenotonlysilencedsurvivorsbutalsoreinforcedthesystemicfailuresthatpushedthemtowardarmedgroupsinsearchforjustice.

Recommendations

ThesefindingsdemandareframingofCRSVpreventionstrategies.Whenimpu-nityandsocialexclusionbecomethenorm,armedgroupsmayparadoxicallyappearasprotectorsorinstrumentsofjusticetosurvi-vorsofsexualviolence.Therefore,toeffec-tivelypreventCRSV,itisimportanttoadoptamoreholisticapproachtoaddressingsex-ualviolence,includingincontextswhereconflicthasnotyetbrokenout.Suchanap-proach–whetherappliedinindigenouscommunitieslikeinNorthernCaucaorelse-where-wouldfocuson:

•Strengtheningjusticepathwaysforsurvivors:Survivorsneedaccessible,trustedsystemsofjusticeandredressthatholdperpetratorsaccountableandshieldsurvivorsfromretaliation.

•Investinginsurvivorsupportsys-tems:Psychosocialcare,legalaid,andsafespacesmustbeavailable,particularlyforwomenandgirlsatriskofcontinuedvictimizationorforcedre-cruitment.

•Transformingculturalnorms:Betterunderstandcommunity-levelgendernormsthatminimizeorexcusesexualviolencetotackleimpunityandbreakcyclesofviolencemoreeffectively.

•Enhancinginstitutionalcapacityandoversight:Awarenessraisingsessionsonthenatureandprevalenceofsexualviolenceinthecommunityaswellastrainingtoacquiretheneces-sarytechnicalskillstobuildsurvivor-centeredjusticeprocessesalignedwithhumanrightsstandardsarekeytoensureacoherentresponseandpre-ventionstrategies.

2.Conflict-relatedsexualviolenceisnotonlycommittedbyarmedgroups,butbyawiderangeofperpetrators

CRSVisfrequentlyframedasatoolprimar-ilywieldedbyarmedgroupsandstateforces.WhilesuchabusesbyarmedgroupsandstateforcesformtheprimaryfocusofCRSVperpetrationwithinaconflict,thisoverlooksabroaderspectrumofperpetra-tors,includingotherparticipantsinconflictsuchasstate-affiliatedmilitias,andthosewhomaynotbeclassifiedaspartiestoaconflict:organizedcriminalgroups,bandits,andgangsaswellascivilianmembersofthecommunity.Conflictenvironmentscannormalizetheuseofviolenceinsociety,leadingtohigherratesofintra-familyand

5TheIndigenousGuardrepresentsanon-violentgroupthatdefendsNasacommunitiesandterritories.

6TheWomen’sDepartmentoftheACINworkstoprotecttherightsofIndigenousNasawomenandgirls.

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intra-communityabuse,includingsexualvi-olence

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EvidencefromtheNorthWestofNigeria

MEACresearchfindingsfromtheNorthWestofNigeriaillustratethiscomplexity.Despiteitsdevastatingimpactoncommu-nities,widespreadbanditryviolenceinstatessuchasKatsina,Sokoto,andZam-faracannotbeneatlyclassifiedasanarmedconflict

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FourteenpercentofrespondentsinMEAC’s2024surveyintheNorthWestofNigeria

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personallyknewofsomeoneintheircommunitywhoexperiencedforcedsexbyanarmedorcriminalgrouplikethebandits

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andonepercenthadpersonallyexperiencedsexualviolenceatthehandofbandits.Whilethesereportedratesofsex-ualviolencearelowandprevalenceislikelyhigher,thesefigureshighlighttheneedtoconsiderotherperpetratorsthatfalloutsidethescopeofthosemostoftenrecognizedforCRSV.Systematicunderreporting,duetostigma,fearortheunavailabilityofreport-ingmechanisms,shouldnotbemiscon-struedfornonoccurrenceandunderstand-ingthefullrangeofprofilesofperpetratorsofCRSVwillservetobolsterpreventionef-fortsinthefuture.

EvidencefromtheLakeChadBasinandColombia

Meanwhile,researchintheLakeChadBa-sinaswellastheresearchintheNorthofCauca(Colombia)notedabove,

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revealthatCRSVisnotlimitedtoinsurgentsorre-belfightersbutisalsoperpetratedbythosepositionedasprotectors:communitymem-bers,localauthorities,andsecurityforces.ThisfocusonCRSVperpetrationbyarmedgroupscanleavesurvivorsunrecognizedandunsupportedwhentheharmcomesfromactorsbeyondpoliticalfocusorwhofalloutsidethescopeofCRSV-relatedin-terventions.

Whilereportsofsexualviolencearethoughttobemuchlowerthanactualprevalence,amongrespondentswhowerewillingtosharetheirexperienceina2024MEACsur-veyintheNorthEastofNigeria

,12

thearrayofperpetratorsincludedBokoHaram(43percent),JAS(30percent),andindividu-alsfromthecommunity(ninepercent)

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InChadandCameroon,similartrendswereobserved.Thesefindingschallengethenarrowfocusonpartiestoconflictandde-mandgreaterscrutinyofstateactorsandcommunity-levelsexualviolenceduringwartime(andbeyond).Theyunderscorea

7AlastairAger,CarolynBancroft,ElizabethBergerandLindsayStark,

“Localconstructionsofgender-basedvio-

lenceamongstIDPsinnorthernUganda:analysisofarchivaldatacollectedusingagender-andage-segmented

participatoryrankingmethodology

”,ConflictandHealth,vol12,No.10,(7February2018).

8TosinOsasona,“

Thequestionofdefinition:ArmedbanditryinNigeria’sNorth-Westinthecontextofinternational

humanitarianlaw,”

InternationalReviewoftheRedCross,vol.105,No.923(June2023),p.735-749.

9TheManagingExitsfromArmedConflictproject(MEAC),SurveywithCommunityMembersinNigeria(NorthWest,January–March2024),UNIDIR,Geneva.

10Doyoupersonallyknowanyoneinyourcommunitywhoexperiencedforcedsexornon-consensualtouchingorsomethingsimilar-byanarmedorcriminalgrouplikeagroupofbandits?AnswerOptions:Yes,No,RefusedtoAnswer

11ÁngelaAguirre,ÁngelaGómez,JuanitaVélez,SofiaRivas,Dr.SiobhanO’Neil,“

SexualviolenceandtheStruggle

forJustice:TheInvolvementofIndigenousNasaSurvivorsinArmedGroupsinNorthernCauca”,

FindingsReport

38,UNIDIR,Geneva,2024.

12TheManagingExitsfromArmedConflictproject(MEAC),SurveywithFormerArmedGroupAssociatesandCom-munityMembersinNigeria(NorthEast,April–June2024),UNIDIR,Geneva.Lessthanonepercentofsurveyedadultsreportedexperiencingsexualviolence.“‘Hasanyoneeverforcedyoutohavesex,ortouchedyouinanyway,withoutyourconsent?”Answeroptions:Yes,No,Refusedtoanswer.Posedonlytoadults

13Whodidthistoyou?”Answeroptions:BokoHaram(notsurewhichfaction),Jamā'atAhlas-Sunnah(alsoknownastheShekauorBakurafaction),TheMammanNurfaction(alsoknownasISWAPortheAl-Barnawifaction),An-saru,Police,Military,theCJTF,YanGora(non-CJTF),Huntersandcharmers,Keshkesh,Banditsorthieves,Peoplefromothercommunities,Youthsinthecommunity,Otherpeopleinthecommunity,Internationalactors,Familymem-ber(s),Other,Refusedtoanswer.Posedonlytothosewhoexperiencedsexualviolence.

PhotobyA,XXyearsoldMosul,Iraq

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Photo:MosesLondoonPexels

needtorethinkaccountabilitymechanismsandsupportsystemstoensuretheyreflectthefullspectrumofharmcaused.

Recommendations

ViewingCRSVprimarilyasaweaponofarmedgroupsandstateforcescanmisstheeverydayrealitiesofsurvivorswhosufferharmatthehandsofthosenotofficiallypartytotheconflict.Consequently,anypre-ventionstrategymusttacklethedeep-seatedculturalnormsthatpredateconflictandthespecificwartimeconditions—stress,impunity,andmilitarization—thatspurpreviouslynonviolentindividualsintoabusivebehaviours

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Theseinclude:

•Addressingallpotentialperpetra-tors:Movebeyonda“partytoarmedconflictvs.civilian”lens.Conflictcon-ditionscanescalateviolenceandim-punitywithincommunities,requiringgreaterattentiontoneighbours,vigi-lantes,andthosenotneatlycatego-rizedaspartiestoconflict–notjustre-belandstatefighters.

•Reinforcingfamilyandcommunityties:Sincesexualviolenceinconflictsettingscanoccurwithincommunities,itiscrucialtoraiseawarenessofthisis-sueandfostersafe,inclusiveenviron-ments.AshighlightedbyNasacom-munityleadersinColombia,strength-eningsocialnetworksiskeytoprovidesurvivorswiththesupporttheyneedtohealandrebuildtheirlives.

•Upholdingaccountability:Streng-thenlegalmechanismstoprosecuteactorsresponsibleforsexualviolenceregardlessofwhotheyare,includingformilitarypersonnel,armedgroups,andcommunitymembers.

•Couplingaccountabilitywithnorma-tivechange:Pairlegalaccountabilityeffortsforwartimecrimeswithlong-termnormchangeinitiatives,includingaddressingpatriarchalnorms,maritalcoercion,andintimatepartnerviolencethatpredateconflict.Thisdualap-proachaddressesboththestructural

14AmandaH.Blair,NicoleGerringandSabrinaKarim“

EndingSexualandGender-BasedViolenceinWarandPeace:

RecommendationsfortheNextU.S.Administration

,”PeaceBrief2015,(Washington,D.C.,UnitedStatesInstituteofPeace,2016)p.3;ElisabethJ.Wood,“

VariationinSexualViolenceduringWar

,”Politics&Societyvol34,No.3(September2006),p.307–342;JanieLeatherman,SexualViolenceandArmedConflict,(Cambridge,PolityPress,2011).

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impunityandculturalattitudesthatal-lowsexualviolencetopersistevenaf-terthegunsofwarhavebeensilenced.

3.WhiletheCRSVfocusismostlyonwomenandgirlvictims,menandboysalsoexperienceconflict-re-latedsexualviolence

FromtheinternationalresponsetoCRSV,itmightbeassumedthatsexualviolenceinconflictonlyaffectswomenandgirls.Thisisnottrue,andthisnarrowframingrendersmalesurvivorsinvisible,bothindatacollec-tionandinthedesignofsupportandreinte-grationprograms.Stigmaplaysasignifi-cantroleinthisinvisibility.Deep-rootedste-reotypesaroundmasculinitycanpreventmalesurvivorsfromdisclosingtheirexperi-encesorseekinghelp.Researchon,andscreeningCRSVagainstmenandboysisoftenimpactedbythisbias,typecastingmenandboysasperpetratorsratherthanpotentialvictims.Inotherwords,ddebates,policies,andlegalframeworksoftenrein-forcemasculinistandheteronormativeide-ologiesthatequategender-basedviolenceexclusivelywithwomen’sexperiences.

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Evenwhenservicesexist,theyarerarelydesignedtoaddressmale-specifictrauma,contributingtocyclesofsilenceandexclu-sion.Inaddition,lawsthatcriminalizeho-mosexualityorfailtoincludemalevictimsindefinitionsofrapeorsexualviolencemayfurtherdiscouragedisclosureofCRSVbymenandboys.15BiasandstigmaagainstmalevictimsofCRSVisfurtherevidentinhowthesecriesarecategorizedunderlegalframeworks.Forexample,insomecon-texts,suchasIraqorSierraLeone,sexual

violenceagainstmenhasbeendocu-mented,butwasoftenclassifiedunderbroadertermslike‘torture’,furtherobscur-ingitsnatureasCRSVandlimitingaccesstotailoredsurvivorservices.

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Generallyspeaking,despiteevidenceofCRSVoccur-ringtowardsmenandboystoo,manyre-searchers,practitionersandpolicymakersworkinginthefieldarereluctanttofocusonthissurvivorpopulation,fearingthatdoingsocoulddivertfundingandresourcesfromwomenandgirls,whoaredisproportion-atelyaffectedbythisformofviolence.

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Thishaspreventedanaccurateunder-standingofthetruescopeandmagnitudeofCRSVagainstmenandboysandimpedestheappropriatescaledandtailoredpreven-tioneffortsandvictimsupport

.18

EvidencefromColombia

MEACqualitativeresearchfindingsfromtheNasaIndigenouscommunityofNorth-ernCauca

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revealedthatmenandboyshavealsobeenvictimsofsexualviolenceinthecommunityinthecontextofthearmedconflict.Inaddition,theresearchshowedthatmalesurvivors,likefemalesurvivors,have,insomecases,alsojoinedarmedgroupsinsearchofjustice,especiallywhencommunityandlegalmechanismsfailedtosupportthem.

Interviewswithresearchersandpractition-ersintheregionandbeyondfurtherempha-sizedthatbothnationalandinternationalpolicies,research,andadvocacycontinuetofocuspredominantlyonCRSVagainstwomenandgirls,despiteevidencethatCRSVisalsoperpetratedagainstmenand

15HelenTouquetandEllenGorris,

“OutoftheShadows?TheInclusionofMenandBoysinConceptualizationsof

WartimeSexualViolence

”,ReproductiveHealthMatters,vol.24,No.47(May2016),p.37

16SandeshSivakumaran,“

SexualViolenceAgainstMeninArmedConflict

”,TheEuropeanJournalofInternationalLaw,vol.18,No.2(April2007),p.254,258.

17HeleenTouquetandPhilippSchulz,“

MalesurvivorsofCRSV,masculinities,andpeacebuilding

”,RoutledgeHand-bookofMasculinities,ConflictandPeacebuilding(Oxfordshire,UnitedKingdom,Routledge,2025).

18HeleenTouquetandPhilippSchulz,“

MalesurvivorsofCRSV,masculinities,andpeacebuilding

”,RoutledgeHand-bookofMasculinities,ConflictandPeacebuilding(Oxfordshire,UnitedKingdom,Routledge,2025).

19TheManagingExitsfromArmedConflictProject(MEAC),FocusgroupdiscussionandinterviewswiththeNasaIndigenousGuardandleadersfromtheACIN,(NorthernCauca,Colombia,July2024);TheManagingExitsfromArmedConflictProject(MEAC),InterviewswithexpertsworkingonCRSV(2025).

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ParticipantphotofromparticipatoryprogrammeinJambaló,Colombia.F.,17yearsold

boystoo.

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Asaresult,malesurvivorsofCRSVoftenlackaccesstobasicformsofredress,includinglegalassistance,andmedicalaid

.21

Thisnarrowperspectivecon-tributestothesystemicinvisibilityofmalesurvivors,furthermarginalizingthemandimpedingtheappropriatelyscaledandtai-loredpreventioneffortsandvictimsup-port

.22

Recommendations

Failingtorecognizethatmenandboysarealsoaffectedbysexualviolencerisksper-petuatingstigma,misconceptionsofmas-culinitiesandostracizingthosemenandboyswhoaresurvivorsofCRSV.Betterun-derstandingthegendereddynamicsofCRSVvictimizationwillcontributetoamoreresponsiveandholisticresponseandin-formtargetedpreventionefforts.Inordertodoso,effortsmustinvolve:

•Strengtheningscreeningandre-searchtoaccuratelycaptureCRSV:Designresearch,screening,andas-sessmenttoolsthatexplicitlyallowfordisclosureofsexualviolencebyallgendersandadoptconcretemeasurestotacklethevariouschallengesthatpreventtheeffectivecollectionofdataontheissue.

•Promotinginclusivesurvivorsup-portsystems:Ensuremedical,legal,andprotectionservicesareaccessibleandequippedtoserveallsurvivors,re-gardlessofgenderorotherintersectingidentities.Whereneededdeveloptar-getedservicesthataddressthespe-cificneedsofmalesurvivors(e.g.,legalredress,healthcare,psychosocialsupport).

•Challengingstigmaandharmfulgendernorms:Raiseawarenessontherealityofmalevictimization.Thiscouldtaketheformofaninformationcampaignsthatcallattentiontotheis-suewhilechallengingmisconceptionssurroundingmalevictimization.

•Reinforcingtraining:Equipresearch-ersandfrontlineserviceproviders,in-cludingcounsellors,medicalperson-nel,aswellaslocalauthoritiesandcommunityleaders,withtheknowledgeandskillstorespondsensi-tivelytomalesurvivors.

20TheManagingExitsfromArmedConflictProject(MEAC),InterviewswithexpertsworkingonCRSV(2025).

21SofiaRivas”CombatingConflictRelatedSexualViolenceAgainstMenandBoys:ComplexitiesandAvenuesforImprovement”,FindingsReport,UNIDIR,Geneva,2025(forthcoming).

22Ibid.

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4.Exitsfromarmedgroupsdonotnecessarilyendrelatedsexualvio-lence,whichmaypersistlongafterexit

HistoricapproachestoDisarmament,De-mobilization,andReintegration(DDR)of-tenassumethatexitinganarmedgroupen-tailsafullseveranceoftiestothegroupandtheviolencethatwascommittedinit,in-cludingCRSV.YetformanywomenintheLakeChadBasinwhoweremarriedduringtheirtimewithBokoHaram,exitingthegroupdoesnotnecessarilytranslateintoafullseparationfromgrouptiesoranendtoconflict-relatedviolence.Thesemar-riages—manyinitiatedundercoercion—frequentlycontinuepost-association,rais-ingcriticalquestionsaboutwhatconsti-tutesmeaningfulreintegrationandwhetherinternationalinterventionsarefitforpur-posewhenitcomestofully“demobilizing”womenandstoppingCRSV.

EvidencefromtheLakeChadBasin

Researchfindingsfromtheregionillustratehowdeeplytiestoformer(andcurrent)members–particularlythroughunionsforcedorconstitutedduringtimewiththegroup–persist.AmongwomenandgirlsformerlyassociatedwithBokoHaramwhoweremarriedwhileinthegroup,83percentinNigeria,77percentinCameroonandallrespondentsinChadreportstillbeingmar-riedtothesamepartneraftertheyhadleft

.23

Unlikemenwhowerefightersinthegroup,whodisengagefromtheircommanders,

womenandgirlsremaintetheredintheirre-lationshiptoBokoHaram,unableinmostcases–eitherlegallyorlogistically–tosep-aratefromtheseunions

.24

WhilesomewomenwanttostaywithmentheyweremarriedtowhilewithBokoHaram(evenincaseswheretheunionwasforced),thosethatwanttoexitboththegroupandtheirmarriagesfacelegalandlogisticalhur-dles.Findingsfromfocusgroupdiscus-sionsintheregionunderscorethiscom-plexity

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Somewomenspokepositivelyoftheirhusbands,citingcare,protection,oremotionalbondsthatformedovertime.Asoneparticipantnoted,“hereisnoonethatwilltakecareofyou,soit'sbestforyoutolikethemandhewillhelpyou.It’sbetterforyoutolikehim.

”26

Theseassessmentsareoftengroundedintherealitythatevenifthesewomenandgirlsleavetheirmenandreturnhome,theirfamilieswouldlikelyforcethemtomarryquicklyagain.Otherwomenandgirlssharedthattheyremaininthesemarriagesbecauseleavingisnotarealoption.Oftenthenarenolegalpath-waystodivorce(withtheexceptionofChadwhichistheonlycountryintheregiontoal-lowwomentodivorcetheirhusbandsiftheirmarriagewasforced)

.27

Eveniftheycouldlegallydivorce,practicalobstaclespreventmanyfromdoingsoasseparatingfromtheirhusbandswouldmeantheywouldlosecustodyoftheirchildrenfromthatmarriage,beleftwithnoeconomicmeanstosurvive,orfaceostracismfromboththecommunity

23“Areyoustillmarriedtosomeonefrom[BokoHaram]?Answeroptions:Yes,No,RefusedtoAnswer.PosedonlytothosewhomarriedwhilewithBokoHaram.

24Whilesomeofthesewomenandgirlsdonotdescribetheirmarriagesas‘forced’,