知觉自由与内在动机-休闲的心理学基础

1知觉自由与内在动机--休闲的心理学基础2TranslatingtheEssenceofLeisureintoSocialPsychologicalTerms

(以社会心理学的术语来阐述休闲的本质)3IntroductionAnumberofpsychologicaltheoriesandconstructs(一些心理学理论和概念)havebeendevelopedtoexplaintheimportanceoftheprocessesofchoice,control,andself-determination(解释选择、控制、自我决定过程的重要性)forhumanbehaviorandwell-being(人类行为与幸福).Centralconstructsincludeperceivedfreedom(知觉自由)andintrinsicmotivation(内在动机).4ATypologyforDescribingLeisure

(一种描述休闲的分类系统)Neulinger(1974)developedatypology(分类系统)thathecalledaleisureparadigm(范例)(seefigure5.1).Thismodel,resultingfromthecross-classificationoftheperceivedfreedom(知觉自由)andintrinsicmotivation(内在动机)dimensions,wasconcernedwithidentifyingand,predictingwhenanactivityorepisodewouldbeconstruedassometypeofleisureornon-leisurebytheindividualparticipant(指出和预测何者为休闲、何者不是休闲).5Neulinger’sLeisureParadigmPerceivedFreedomTypeofMotivationExtrinsicIntrinsicConstrainedPureJobPureWorkFreeLeisure-JobPureLeisure6ATypologyforDescribingLeisure(cont’)Neulingeridentifiedtheprimarydefiningcriterionofleisureas

perceivedfreedom(首要休闲之判断准则为知觉自由).Neulinger(1981)definedperceivedfreedomas“astate(一种状态)inwhichthepersonfeelsthatwhatsheorheisdoingisdonebychoiceandbecauseonewantstodoit(一个人所做之事为其选择且是因为他想做)”.Neulingerarguedthateveryoneknowsthatthedifferencebetweendoingsomethingbecauseone“hasto”anddoingsomethingbecauseone“wantsto.(知道必须要做某事和想要做某事之间的差别)”7ATypologyforDescribingLeisure(cont’)Infact,inmostsituationspeoplearelikelytobeconstrainedinsomeway

(大概都有某些限制)sothattheytypicallyfeelonlyrelativelyfree(相对自由)orfreewithcertainlimits(自由受到限制).Thoughanindividualmayhavetheafternoonofftodoassheorhewishes,inactualfact,choicesforleisurearelikelyconstrainedtosomeextent(休闲的选择可能有些限制)bythetimeavailable(可利用时间),finances(财务),recreationalskills(技巧),andtheavailabilityoffriends(可一同参与之朋友).8ATypologyforDescribingLeisure(cont’)Neulingerdistinguishedbetweenintrinsic(内在)andextrinsic(外在)motivation.Neulingerdescribedmotivationasbeingintrinsicwhentherewardsforparticipation

(给予参加之奖赏)areseenascomingfromengagingintheactivityitself(来自参与活动本身).Extrinsicmotivation(外在动机)iswhentheactivityisengagedinprimarilybecauseitleadstorewardsexternaltotheactivityitself(奖赏来自活动本身之外),suchasmoney(金钱),grades(成绩),recognition(表扬),awards(奖牌).9Fourcharacteristicsofintrinsicmotivation(内在动机的四个特性)1.intrinsicallymotivatedbehaviorscanoccurintheabsenceofanyapparentexternalreward(没有明显外在诱因).(Deci&Ryan,1985)2.intrinsicallymotivatedbehaviorsareengagedin

outofinterest(基于兴趣).3.intrinsicallymotivatedactivitiesareoptimallychallenging(最佳挑战)andresultinflowexperience(产生流畅体验).4.intrinsicallymotivatedbehaviorsarebasedoninnatepsychologicalneeds(与生俱来的心理需求)forcompetence(能力提升)andself-determination(自我决定).10ATypologyforDescribingLeisure(cont’)Inadditiontorewards,perceptionsofextrinsicmotivationcanoccurinsituationswherethereasonsforparticipationareduetoawiderangeoffactorsincludingthreatsofpunishment(惩罚),evaluation(评价),deadliness(致死),andobligations(责任).Neulingertheorizedthatperceivedfreedomistheprimaryandcriticaldeterminantofwhatisperceivedasleisure(知觉自由为是否判定休闲之基本且重要因素).Whenanactivityisperceivedtobefreelychosen(自由选择)andmotivatedforintrinsicreasons(内在原因所驱动),Neulingercalleditpureleisure(纯休闲).11PerceivedFreedomandControlinLifeandLeisure

(生活与休闲当中的知觉自由与控制)12TheImportanceofPerceivedFreedomandControl(知觉自由与控制的重要性)Abasichumanresponseistoattempttocontrolone’slifeandsurroundingsinwork,family,andleisurecontexts(企图掌控生活中关于工作、家庭和休闲之事).Allhumanshaveaneedtounderstandtheirworldandtoexercisecontrolovertheirenvironment(对环境施加控制),otherwisetheywouldnotsurvive.deCharms(1968)proposedthatpeopleareallmotivatedbythedesiretobemastersoftheirownfate(命运主宰者),andthatpeoplestrivetobecausalagents(事情起因者)ortheoriginsoftheirbehavior(行为肇始者).13TheImportanceofPerceivedFreedomandControl(cont’)Langer(1983)suggeststhatpeopleneedtofeelthattheycancontroltheimportanteventsintheirlives(人们需要感觉他们能够控制生活中重大事件)andthatmostpeopleareunrealisticallyoptimistic(不切实际的乐观)aboutthefutureandtendtoexaggeratetheamountofcontrol(夸大控制能力)theyhaveoveruncontrollablelifeevents.14TheoriesofFreedomandControlandTheirImplicationsforLeisureBrehm(1966)suggestedthatathreattoorlossoffreedom(自由的威胁或失去)generatesastateofmotivationalarousal(动机唤醒状态)hecalledpsychologicalreactance(心理反抗)whichresultsinattemptstoregainthefreedom(企图重获自由).Whenaspecificfreedomiseliminatedorthreatened(某种自由被剥夺或受威胁),theindividualwillevaluatethefreedom

more

favorably(更美好)andbemotivatedtoreestablishit(想要再取得).15Examples

Invideoarcadecase,forbiddingorthreateningtheopportunitytoplayvideogamesatthearcade

(打电动玩具机会被禁止或威胁)mayresultintheadolescentwantingtopursuethisactivityevenmorethanhecurrentlydoes(更想去玩).Theadolescentinthecaseofarcadevideogamesmaysneakout(偷溜出去)toplayatthearcadeorattempttopersuadehisparents(企图说服父母)torestorethisfreedom(重获自由).Researchersfoundthatthemoreinterference(越干涉)inaromanticrelationship(男女情爱关系)therewasbyparents,themoreinlovethecoupleswere(这对情侣越要谈恋爱).16LearnedHelplessness(习得无助感)Learnedhelplessnesscanbedescribedasthephenomenoninwhichexperiencewithuncontrollableevents(无法控制事件经验)createspassivebehaviortowardsubsequentthreatstowell-being(产生对后续幸福威胁的被动行为).InLittleLeagueBaseball,Ifplayersattributetheirfailuretoalackofpersonalability(把失败归咎于个人能力)orcontrol,theirpersistenceat(持续参与)andenjoymentoftheactivityisreducedandtheyarelikelytowithdraw(退出).Iftheproblembecomescompoundedbyrepeatedexposuretofailures(又加上一直失败)anduncontrollableevents,suchasstrikingout(三振出局)repeatedly,astateofgeneralizedhelplessness(永久的无助感)maybetheconsequence.17StrategiestoLearnedHelplessness

(对付习得无助的策略)Iso-Ahola

(1980)suggestedthatthemostobvioussolutiontolearnedhelplessness(对习得无助最明显的解决之道)wouldbetoremovecompetition(去除竞争)fromleisureactivitiesentirely.Theimportanceoftheleisureactivityinwhichfailuresareexperiencedcanbeminimized(失败的重要性应尽可能被忽略),andtheimportanceoftheleisureactivityinwhichtheindividualisproficientcanbeemphasized(技术纯熟的重要性应被强调)(Iso-Ahola&Mannell,1985).18Self-efficacy(自我效能)Self-efficacyisdefinedasapersonorbelief(信念)thatsheorheiscapableofthespecificbehaviorrequiredtoproduceadesiredoutcome(产生所想要结果所需要的相对应行为能力)inagivensituation.Self-efficacy

judgments(自我效能的判断)influencethedegreeofeffort

peopleexpendandtheirpersistenceinthefaceofobstacles(影响面对障碍时持续投入程度)oraversiveexperiences(不好的经验).Bandurasuggeststhatperceptionsofefficacydevelopedwithinonedomainofpeople’slives

tendtogeneralizetootherareas(从一个领域转移至另一领域).Thisconceptcanbeappliedintherapeuticrecreation(休闲游憩治疗).19TheNeedforaSenseofFreedomandControl(对自由和控制感觉的需要)Generally,theneedforasenseoffreedomandcontrol(自由和控制感的需求)isthoughttobeimportantorcommontoallpeople(基本而言是重要的).However,researcherssuggestedthattheneedforfreedomandcontrolvariesinstrengthamongpeopleasaresultofsocializationexperienceandpersonality(自由和控制感的需求因社会化和人格特质而不同).Somepeoplehaveahighneedforcontrol,whereasforothersthisneedismuchlessimportant.20IntrinsicMotivation:TheNeedforSelf-Determination,Competence,andRelatedness

(自我决定、胜任能力和与人相关之需求)21TheNatureofIntrinsicandExtrinsicMotivation(内在动机与外在动机的特质)Deci(1975)theorizedthatpeopleareoftenmotivatedtoengageinactivitiesbecausetheywanttodemonstratethemselvesthattheyarecapableofeffectivelyexercisingcontrolovertheirenvironments(参与活动是为展示他们有能力控制环境).Thesupremacyofextrinsicrewardsforcontrollingbehaviorwaschallenged

(外在奖赏的优越性受质疑)byresearchwithhumansandanimals.22TheDangerofRewardsandExtrinsicRegulationinLeisure(休闲中犒赏和外在调节的危险性)Itiscommonforpeopletostriveforexternalrewards.Whenpeoplearerewardedforlisteningtomusic,playinggamesorvolunteering,theirbehaviorcanbecomeover-justified(过度辨正),thatis,theymaybegintoattributetheirparticipationtoextrinsicmotive(将参与原因归之于外在动机).Researchhassuggestedthatsuchover-justificationcanbedangerous(过度辨正是危险的).23TheDangerofRewardsandExtrinsicRegulationinLeisure(cont’)Theintroductionofextrinsicrewardstendtounderminepeople’sexperienceofself-determination(摧毁自我决定之经验)andinduceashiftin

perceived

locusofcausality(导致知觉成因源头的改变)frominternaltoexternal,andconsequentlytheirmotivationfromintrinsictoextrinsic(内在动机变外在动机).Peoplecometoconstruetheirparticipationasduetoreceivingareward(解释其参与是为得奖赏)whichreducestheirinterestintheactivity(降低活动兴趣).24TheDangerofRewardsandExtrinsicRegulationinLeisure(cont’)Ifanindividualacceptsmoneyforahobbyorleisureactivity(为兴趣接受金钱),beforeheorsheknows,whatusedtobe“play”

cancometofeellike

“work”(游戏将变成工作).Ingeneral,settingsthatareexperiencedasautonomysupportive(自主支持)(i.e.,encouragingself-determinationandchoice)havebeenshowntomaintainorenhanceintrinsicmotivation(维持或促进内在动机).However,socialsituationsthatarecontrolling(被社会情境所控制)(i.e.,experiencedaspressuretoperforminspecificway)havebeenfoundtoundermineintrinsicmotivation(摧毁内在动机).25TheDangerofRewardsandExtrinsicRegulationinLeisure(cont’)Situationswherethemotivationforparticipationisduetothreatsofpunishment,obligations,evaluations,deadlines,andimposedgoals(别人所设定的目标)canalsoundermineorreduceintrinsicmotivation(摧毁或降低内在动机).Thebroadsetoffactorsthatcancreatecontrollingconditionsiscalledextrinsicregulation(外在调节).Theoverjustificationcanhaveseriousimplications(严肃意义)forhowteachers(老师)userewardsandextrinsicregulationofvarioustypestoimprovestudyhabits,businessmanagers(经理)useincentivestoincreaseworkerproductivity,parents(父母)motivatetheirchildren,coachesencouragetheirplayers.26Self-DeterminationandLeisureintheFace

ofExtrinsicRegulation

(自我决定与休闲面临外在调节)Istherenoroleforrewardsindevelopingintrinsicmotivationforparticipationinaleisureactivity(奖赏是否对产生内在动机无作用)?Ifapersonisnotintrinsicallymotivatedtostartwith(非内在动机所启动),thenarewardcannothurtbecausethebehaviorcouldnotbecomeover-justified.27Self-DeterminationandLeisureintheFaceofExtrinsicRegulation(cont’)Ifreceivingarewarddoesnotdependonparticipatinginanactivity(参与活动非因要得到奖赏),thenparticipationislikelytobeseenasbeingundertheindividual’sowncontrolandtherewardperceivedasabonus(额外奖励),ratherthanasabribe(贿赂).Whentherewardwasseenasabonusforparticipation,ithadnotinterferedwiththestudents’feelingsofself-determinationandtheirintrinsicinterestintheactivity(不会干扰自我决定和出自兴趣的感觉).28Self-DeterminationandLeisureintheFaceofExtrinsicRegulation(cont’)Self-determinationtheory(自我决定论)suggeststhatbeingabletoexperienceintrinsicinterest(体验内在兴趣)inexternallycontrolledcircumstances(被外部情况所控制)involvesinternalization(内化)andintegration(整合).Thisprocessallowspeopletoexpandtheirsenseoffreedom(延伸自由感)andcontrolovertheirsocialenvironments(控制社会情境)eveninthefaceofpotentiallycontrollingfactors(面临潜在控制因素).29Self-DeterminationandLeisureintheFaceofExtrinsicRegulation(cont’)Theprocessofinternalizationandintegration(内化和整合过程)isthemeans(方法)bywhichextrinsicallymotivatedactivitiescanbecomeself-determined(外在动机变为自我决定)andthus,likeintrinsicmotivation,providethebasisforhighlysatisfyingleisure(提供高满意休闲基础).Thisperspectivehelpsinunderstandinghowpeoplecanfindleisureintheirwork(工作中发现休闲),andhowactivitiesthatinvolverewards,obligationsandcommitments(奖赏、责任、承诺)canattimesbeexperiencedasleisure.30Self-DeterminationandLeisureintheFaceofExtrinsicRegulation(cont’)Externalregulation

(外在调节)referstobehaviorsthatarecontrolledbyfactorsclearlyexternaltotheindividual(被个人以外的因素所控制),likethepromiseofarewardorthethreatofpunishment.Introjectedregulation(投射调节)referstoactivitiesthataremotivatedbyinternalpressures(内在压力所驱动)anddescribesaformofmotivationinwhichactionsarecontrolledorcoercedbyinternalneeds(行动被内在需求所控制或威胁)

otherthancompetence,self-determination,orrelatedness.31IntrojectedRegulation(投射调节)Itisintrojectedregulationthatisoperatingwhenpeopleparticipatebecausetheyfeeltheyshould(必须)orbecausetheywouldfeelguilty(罪恶感)iftheydidnot.Forexample,runningduringyourfreetime(闲暇时间跑步)canbemotivatedbyaformofintrojectedregulation.Peoplemaynotrunoutofarealandgenuine

interest(非出于真正兴趣而跑)(intrinsicmotivation),butbecausetheybelieveitishealthytoexercise(相信跑步对健康有益).Theyfeeltheyshouldrun,andtheywouldfeelguiltyiftheydidnot.32Integratedregulation(整合调节)Integratedregulationisthemostself-determinedformofextrinsicmotivation(外在动机的极致自我决定形式)andresultsfromthecompleteinternalizationandintegrationofextrinsicregulation(完全内化与外在调节的整合).Theactivityhasbecomepersonallyimportantandpeoplearelesslikelytofeelcontrolledbyextrinsicrewardsandregulation(比较不会感觉被外在奖赏和调节所控制).33Integratedregulation(cont’)Withrespecttorunning,suchintegratedregulationisdifferentfromthatexperiencedbypeoplewhoparticipatebecausetheyfeelthattheyshouldexerciseforhealthreasons(introjectedregulation)orbecausetheirfriendsarepressuringthemtodoso(externalregulation).Therunnersalsofeelthattheirparticipationishighlyself-determined(高度自我决定).34AnExampleWhenMannell

etal.(1988)examinedthedifferencesinthetypesofactivities(usingESM)thatareclassifiedasextrinsicallyandintrinsicallymotivated(以内外动机分类),theyfoundsomeinterestingdifferences.Pure-jobactivitiesproducedasmany

flowexperiences(一样多的流畅体验)aspureleisure.Leisure-job

activitieswereexperiencedasflow

significantly

morefrequentlythan(流畅体验显著多于)

pure

leisureactivities.35AnExample(cont’)Thepureleisureoftheolderadults(老年人)morefrequentlyconsistedofpassiveleisureactivities(多从事被动式休闲),suchasrelaxing,reading,watchingTV,andlisteningtomusic.Leisure-jobactivitieswerefrequentlymoredemandingactivities(多付出心力的休闲活动)suchashobbies