2025年加拿大人工智能：AI研发与应用法律指南报告（英文版）-奥斯勒律师事务所

AIinCanada

Alegalguidetodevelopingandusingartificialintelligence

September10,2025

Tableofcontents

Introduction

3

OverviewofAIinCanada

5

RegulationofAIinCanada

6

AIstandards

8

Applicationandcompliancewithforeignlaws

10

Copyright

12

PrivacyconsiderationswhendevelopingAI

14

PrivacyconsiderationswhenusingAI

16

Humanrights

19

Tortliability

21

Competitionandforeigninvestmentlaws

22

Employmentconsiderations

24

Healthcareandmedicaldevices

26

Capitalmarkets

28

UsinggenerativeAItoprovidelegalservices

29

Publicsector

31

ContractingforAIapplications33

AIinCanada:alegalguidetodevelopingandusingartificialintelligence©2025Osler,Hoskin&HarcourtLLP.Allrightsreserved.

AIINCANADA:ALEGALGUIDETODEVELOPINGANDUSINGARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCEOsler,Hoskin&Harcourtllp

Introduction

ArtificialIntelligence(AI)istransformingtheworldaroundus.Whatonceseemedlike

sciencefiction,isincreasinglybecomingpartofourdailylives.Fromgeneratinganswers

tocomplexquestions,toenhancingtheprovisionofhealthcareservices,andeverythinginbetween,AIisprofoundlyalteringhowweworkandlive,whilesimultaneouslycreating

unprecedentedopportunitiesforinnovation,improvedproductivity,andeconomicgrowth.

Yet,withAI’stransformativepotentialcomesahostofcomplexlegalandregulatorychallengesthatdevelopersandusersofAItoolsmustnavigatecarefully.

Thisguideisdesignedtoprovideapractical,business-orientedroadmapfororganizationsandindividualsinvolvedinthedevelopment,deployment,anduseofAIsystems.ItaddressesthemultifacetedlegalandoperationalissuesthatariseintheAIecosystem,offeringinsightsandactionablestrategiestomitigaterisk,enablecompliance,andfostertrustinAItechnologies.

Byfocusingonreal-worldapplicationsandspecificcontexts—suchasemployment,

healthcare,capitalmarkets,legalservices,andthepublicsector—thisguideaimstoequipdevelopersandusersofAIwiththeknowledgeandtoolsnecessarytomakeinformed

decisionsinarapidlyevolvingtechnologicallandscape.

Keyissuesaddressedintheguide

ThisguideexploresabroadspectrumofissuesthatarecriticaltotheresponsibledevelopmentanduseofAI,including:

•AIregulationandstandards:Understandingemergingregulatoryframeworks,industrystandards,andbestpracticestoensurecomplianceandfosteraccountability.

•Copyright:AddressingquestionsaroundownershipofAI-generatedworksandtheuseofpubliclyavailabledatafortrainingmodels.

•Privacy:Navigatingprivacylaws,withafocusonthelegalbasisforcollectingandusingpersonalinformation,dataminimizationandprivacyimpactassessments.

•Humanrightsconsiderations:EnsuringthatAIsystemsprotectagainstbiasanddiscrimination,andpromotetransparencyandaccountability.

•Tortliabilityandriskmanagement:AssessingliabilityrisksassociatedwithAIerrors,failures,andharms,aswellasimplementingstrategiestomitigateexposure.

•Antitrustandcompetitionlaw:EvaluatingthecompetitiveimpactsofAItechnologies,includingconcernsaboutprice-fixing,collusion,andotheranti-competitivepractices.

•Commercialcontracting:DraftingcontractsthataddressAI-specificissues,suchasintellectualpropertyrights,regulatorycompliance,andriskallocation.

3

4

Context-specificguidance

AsthechallengesandopportunitiespresentedbyAIvaryacrossindustriesandsectors,thisguideseekstoprovidetailoredinsightsforkeyareasofapplication:

•Employment:ManagingtheuseofAIinhiring,performanceevaluation,andworkplacemonitoring.

•Healthcare:LeveragingAIforthedeliveryofhealthcareaswellasforthedevelopmentanddeploymentofmedicaldevices.

•Capitalmarkets:HarnessingAIforalgorithmictradingandriskassessment.

•Legalservices:DeployingAItoenhancethedeliveryoflegalservices,whileaddressingprofessionalresponsibility,privilegeandconfidentialityconcerns.

•Publicsector:ImplementingAIinthedeliveryofgovernmentservices,includingthroughthedeploymentofautomateddecisionmaking.

Apractical,forward-lookingapproach

ThisguideisnotmerelyatheoreticalexplorationofAI-relatedissues.Rather,itisa

practicaltooldesignedtohelporganizationsandindividualsnavigatethecomplexitiesof

AIdevelopmentanduse.WhetheryouareadeveloperofAIsystems,in-housecounsel,

oraleaderseekingtointegrateAIintoyouroperations,thisguideprovidesaplethoraof

insightstohelpyoutackleAI’svariouslegalandregulatorychallenges,whileunlockingAI’sfullpotential.

AIINCANADA:ALEGALGUIDETODEVELOPINGANDUSINGARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCEOsler,Hoskin&Harcourtllp

5

OverviewofAIinCanada

Thingstoknow

•CanadahaslongbeenattheforefrontofAIadvancementsandrecognizedasagloballeaderinthefield.GroundbreakingworkinCanadabyGeoffreyHinton,Yoshua

Bengio,andYannLeCun—the“foundingfathersofAI”—haslaidthefoundationformanymodernAIinnovations,includingartificialneuralnetworks,deeplearningandreinforcementlearning.CanadacontinuestorankhighlyinglobalAIresearch,consistentlyplacingfourthintheGlobalAIIndex.

•ThePan-CanadianArtificialIntelligenceStrategyandtheCanadianSovereignAI

ComputeStrategy,introducedin2024,underscoresCanada’scommitmenttofosteringdomesticAIinnovationanddevelopment.ThelaunchoftheCanadianAISafety

Institute,alsoin2024,hasreinforcedCanada’scommitmenttothesafedevelopmentanddeploymentofAI.

•WhileCanada’sambitionstofosteraworld-leadingAIecosystemcreatesignificant

opportunities,understandingCanadiannorms,standardsandregulatoryframeworksiscriticalwhendeveloping,distributingordeployingAIsystemsinCanada.

Thingstodo

•Developahigh-levelunderstandingofAIwithintheCanadianlandscape.

•EvaluateboththeopportunitiesandrisksassociatedwithengagingintheCanadianAImarket,includingchallengesrelatedtodataprivacy,intellectualpropertyprotection,discriminationandproductliability.

•CreateagovernanceplanformeetingemergingregulatorystandardsforresponsibleAIandensuringcompliancewithCanadianlegalrequirementsfortheprocurement,adoption,developmentanddeploymentofAI.

•CollaboratewithCanadianlegalandindustryexpertstonavigatejurisdiction-specificconsiderationstoachieveyourorganizationalobjectives.

Usefulresources

•“

Pan-CanadianArtificialIntelligenceStrategy

,”Innovation,ScienceandEconomicDevelopmentCanada,December2024

•“

CanadianSovereignAIComputeStrategy

,”Innovation,ScienceandEconomicDevelopmentCanada,May2025

•“

CanadalaunchesCanadianArtificialIntelligenceSafetyInstitute

,”Innovation,ScienceandEconomicDevelopmentCanada,November12,2024

•“

OslerAISeries:Aprimeronthetechnology,commonandemerginguses,opportunities

andchallenges

,”webinarhostedbyOsler,March7,2023

6

RegulationofAIinCanada

Thingstoknow

•ThereisnolawinCanadathatsetsoutageneralframeworkforregulatingAImodelsandsystems.ThebillthatincludedCanada’sproposedArtificialIntelligenceand

DataAct(AIDA)diedontheOrderPaperwhenParliamentwasproroguedonJanuary6,2025.

•TheDepartmentofInnovation,ScienceandEconomicDevelopmenthaspublished

avoluntarycodeofconductapplicabletogenerativeAIsystemsthathaveadvanced

capabilitiesenablingthemtobeadaptedforawidevarietyofusesindifferentcontexts.Developersandmanagersofadvancedgenerativesystemsthatbecomesignatoriesto

thecodemakecommitmentsinrespectofaccountability,safety,fairnessandequity,transparency,humanoversightandmonitoring,andvalidityandrobustness.

•TherearemultiplelawsofgeneralapplicationthatgovernspecificelementsofthedevelopmentanduseofAImodelsandsystems.Relevantlawsinclude:

。federalandprovincialprivacylawswhichregulatethecollection,useanddisclosureofpersonalinformationinthecontextofthetrainingofAImodelsandthegenerationofoutput.PrivacylawsinQuebecincludeadditionalrulesapplicabletoautomated

decisionsystems

。copyrightlawwhichisrelevanttothegenerationoftrainingdatasets,thetrainingofAImodels,andthegenerationofmodeloutput

。federalandprovincialhumanrightslawswhichprohibitdiscriminationonenumeratedgrounds(includingrace,colourandgender)inspecificcontexts(includingemploymentandtheprovisionofgoods,services,facilitiesandaccommodation)

。tortlaws(andsimilarprovisionsinQuebec’sCivilCode)whichholdorganizationsorindividualsliablefordamagescausedthroughtheirnegligence,includingforproductsthattheycreateordeploy.Otherpotentiallyrelevanttortsincludedefamation,

misrepresentation,intentionalinflictionofmentaldistress,placingapersoninafalselight,andnon-consensualdistributionofintimateimages

。competitionlawwhichgovernagreements,conductandtransactionsthatmaypreventorlessencompetition,andhasbeenidentifiedasakeyareaoffocusgivenAI’spotentialtofacilitateanti-competitivepractices,suchascollusionanddeceptivemarketing

。employmentlaws,whichregulatetheuseofAIinemploymentcontextssuchashiring,monitoring,performanceevaluationandtermination

•Sector-specificrequirementsapplicabletotheuseofAImodelsandsystemsalsoexist,includinginconnectionwith:

。financialservices(e.g.,guidelinesoftheOfficeoftheSuperintendentofFinancialInstitutionsthatgoverntheuseofmodels)

。capitalmarkets(e.g.,StaffNoticeandConsultationoftheCanadianSecurities

7

AdministratorsonhowsecuritieslegislationappliestotheuseofAI)

。transportation(e.g.,regulationsapplicabletothetestinganduseofautonomousvehiclesonpublicroadways)

。legalservices(e.g.,guidelinesissuedbyprovinciallawsocietiesapplicabletotheuseofgenerativeAIbylawyers)

。publicsectorentities(e.g.,guideforfederalinstitutionsontheuseofgenerativeAI)

Thingstodo

•IdentifyallexistinglawsandregulatorguidancethatmayapplytoyourdevelopmentoruseofAImodelsorsystems.

•Monitorlegislativedevelopmentsatthefederal,provincialandmunicipallevelsofgovernmenttoidentifyregulatoryrequirementsthatmayapplytoyouractivities.

•Monitorguidelines,directivesanddecisionsofregulatorsforrulesgoverningthedevelopmentoruseofAImodelsorsystems.

•Considerif,ortowhatextent,lawsofotherjurisdictions(suchastheE.U.’sArtificialIntelligenceAct)mayapplytoyourAI-relatedactivities.

Usefulresources

•“

VoluntaryCodeofConductontheResponsibleDevelopmentandManagementof

AdvancedGenerativeAISystems

,”Innovation,ScienceandEconomicDevelopmentCanada,September2023

•“

EthicalDesignandUseofArtificialIntelligencebySmallandMediumOrganizations

,”DigitalGovernanceCouncil,CAN/DGSI101:2025

•“

Artificialintelligenceandcompetition–DiscussionPaper

,”CompetitionBureauofCanada,March2024

•“

ConsultationonArtificialIntelligenceandCompetition:WhatWeHeard

,”CompetitionBureauofCanada,January27,2025

8

AIstandards

Thingstoknow

•Intheabsenceoflegislativeguidance,standardsarecriticallyimportanttoguidetheresponsibledevelopment,deploymentanduseofAI.

•StandardssettingorganizationsarerapidlydevelopingavarietyofstandardsapplicabletoAI.Themostprominentinclude:

。

ISO/IEC42001

–Informationtechnology—Artificialintelligence—Managementsystem,thefirstinternationalstandardforAImanagementsystems.

•ISO42001providesaseriesofcontrolsforembeddingresponsibleAIpracticesacrossanorganization.

。

ISO/IEC23894

–Informationtechnology—Artificialintelligence—Guidanceonriskmanagement,aninternationalstandardformanagingAIrisk.

•ISO23894–Informationtechnology—Artificialintelligence—Guidanceonriskmanagement—supportslifecycle-basedriskassessmentsandrisk

communicationstrategies.

。

NISTAIRMF1.0

[PDF]–ArtificialIntelligenceRiskManagementFramework,a

standardpublishedbytheU.S.NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology(NIST)isframeworkformanagingrisksacrosstheAIlifecycle.

•TheNISTAIRMFPlaybookdescribesactionforachievingoutcomesoutlinedintheRiskManagementFramework.

•TheGovernmentofCanada’sVoluntaryCodeofConductontheResponsible

DevelopmentandManagementofAdvancedGenerativeAISystems,introducedinOctober2023andexpandedin2025,encouragesorganizationstocommittokey

principlessuchassafety,transparency,accountability,fairness,andhumanoversight.

。TheVoluntaryCodeofConductdistinguishesbetweenorganizationsthatdevelopadvancedgenerativeAIsystemsandthosethatmanageordeploythem,withdifferentexpectationsandcommitmentsforeach.

。InMarch2025,thefederalgovernmentpublishedtheGuideforManagersofAISystems,offeringausefulpracticaltoolforimplementingtheVoluntaryCode.

Thingstodo

•UnderstandthecontentofthestandardsandwhichpartsofthestandardsapplytoyourparticulardevelopmentanduseofAI.

•ConsidertherolethatcompliancewithleadinginternationalAIstandardscanplayinpolicymakingandcontractingforeffectiveandresponsibleAIdevelopment

anddeployment.

9

•WhencontractingandprocuringAItools,considerutilizingthesestandardstocreateobligationsaroundtheeffectivenessandresponsibledeploymentofAI.

•Considerwhetheritistoyouradvantagetofollow,adoptorsignontotheGovernmentofCanada’sVoluntaryCodeofConductonAI.

•Buildflexibilityintopolicies,contractsandprocurementrequirementstotakeintoaccountevolvingstandards.

Usefulresources

•Internationalstandards:

。

ISO/IEC42001–AIManagementSystem

。

ISO/IEC23894–AIRiskManagement

。

NISTAIRiskManagementFramework(AIRMF1.0)

•Canadianframeworksandguidance:

。

EthicalDesignandUseofArtificialIntelligencebySmallandMediumOrganizations,

CIOStrategyCouncil,CAN/DGSI101:2025

。

VoluntaryCodeofConductforGenerativeAI

。

GuideforManagersofAISystems(2025)

•Commentaryandguidance:

。“

TheroleofISO/IEC42001inAIgovernance

,”Osler,July10,2024

10

Application

andcompliancewithforeignlaws

Thingstoknow

•AIisincreasinglyregulatedacrossjurisdictions.Cross-bordercomplianceiscriticalforcompaniesoperatingglobally,especiallywhereAIsystemsmaybeclassifieddifferently(e.g.,“high-risk”intheE.U.butnotinCanada).

•TheE.U.’sArtificialIntelligenceActistheworld’sfirstcomprehensiveAIregulation.It

introducesarisk-basedframework.SomeAIsystemsandpracticesareprohibited,specificrulesapplytoidentified“high-risk”AIsystemsandgeneralpurposeAImodels,and

transparencyrequirementsapplytocertainAIsystemsconsideredtobelowrisk.TherulesarebeingphasedinbetweenFebruary2025andAugust2026.OnJuly10,2025,theEuropeanCommissionpublishedTheGeneral-PurposeCodeofPractice,avoluntarytooltoassistdevelopersofgeneralpurposeAImodelstocomplywiththeAct.

•U.S.AIpolicyremainsfragmented.Whilesomesector-specificrulesexists,thereisnobroadlyapplicablefederalAIlaw.Whilesomestatelawshavebeenenacted,Congressisconsideringtheenactmentofa10-yearmoratoriumonstate-levelAIlegislation.

•CanadahasbeenanactiveparticipantinvariousinternationalinitiativesinrespectofAI,includingthecreationofstandardsemphasizinghumanrights,accountability,andinteroperability.Theseinitiativesinclude:

。theOECD’sRecommendationoftheCouncilonArtificialIntelligence(whichsetsoutthefirstintergovernmentalstandardaddressingAI,whichistobeusedbymemberstoshapepoliciesandcreateanAIriskframeworkacrossjurisdictions)

。theUNESCORecommendationontheEthicsofArtificialIntelligence(whichaddressesethicalissues)

•CanadaisafoundingsignatoryoftheCouncilofEuropeFrameworkConventiononAI,thefirstlegallybindinginternationaltreatyonAI,focusedonhumanrights,democracy,andtheruleoflaw.

Thingstodo

•IdentifywhereyourAIsystemsaredeveloped,deployed,orsold,anddetermineifyouaresubjecttoforeignregulatoryregimessuchastheE.U.AIAct,U.S.sectorallaws,ortreaty-basedobligations.

•ConsiderAIprocurementstandardsandmodelclauseswhencontractingwiththird-partyAIdevelopersorvendorsandconsiderreferencingmodelprocurementstandards(e.g.,E.U.modelclauses)tomitigatelegal,operational,andreputationalrisks.

11

•AssessAIsystemclassificationunderapplicableforeignAIregulations:

。Determineifyoursystemfallsunder“prohibited,”“high-risk,”or“limited-risk”categoriespursuanttotheE.U.’sAIAct.

。Preparetoimplementtechnicaldocumentation,conformityassessments,andhumanoversightforhigh-risksystems.

•ConsideraligningyourAIpracticeswithinternationalstandardstodemonstrateproactivegovernanceandreducecompliancefrictionacrossjurisdictions.

•Implementinternalcomplianceprogramsthatintegrateinternationalstandards(suchasISO/IEC42001andNISTAIRMF)tocreateagloballycompatibleAIgovernanceframework.

•MonitorinternationaldevelopmentsinAIregulationandcoordinatelegalstrategiesacrossjurisdictions.

Usefulresources

•Nationalandinternationallegalframeworks:

。

EUArtificialIntelligenceAct

,EuropeanUnion,inforce2024

。“

TheGeneral-PurposeAICodeofPractice

,”EuropeanCommission,July2025

。“

ModelArtificialIntelligenceGovernanceFramework:SecondEdition

[PDF],”PersonalDataProtectionCommissionSingapore,Singapore,2020

。

TheBasicActontheDevelopmentofArtificialIntelligenceandtheEstablishment

ofTrust

,SouthKorea,inforce2026

。

InterimMeasuresfortheManagementofGenerativeArtificialIntelligenceServices

,China,2023

•Multilateralandtreaty-basedinitiatives:

。

CouncilofEuropeFrameworkConventiononAI

[PDF]

。“

RecommendationoftheCouncilonArtificialIntelligence

,”OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,2024

。“

RecommendationontheEthicsofArtificialIntelligence

,”UNESCO,2021

。“

StatementontheRoleofDataProtectionAuthoritiesinFosteringTrustworthyAI

,”OfficeofthePrivacyCommissionerofCanada,October2024

12

Copyright

Thingstoknow

•CanadiancopyrightlawdoesnotprovidespecificrulesforAIsystems,butexistingprinciples—especiallyrelatingtoauthorship,reproductionandfairdealing—arerelevantwhenAItoolsaredeveloped,trained,anddeployed.

•AuthorshipandownershipofAI-generatedworksisanopenlegalquestioninCanada.Thedefaultruleisthattheauthoristhefirstownerofcopyright(subjecttocertain

exceptions).Thereisnodefinitionof“author”inCanada’sCopyrightAct,butcopyrightjurisprudencesuggeststhatanauthormustbeanaturalperson.

•Textanddatamining(TDM)exemptionsarenotexpresslyidentifiedwithinthe

CopyrightAct.WhileTDMmayarguablybejustifiedunderafairdealingexceptiontoinfringement,thelegalstatusofTDMactivities,includingthereproductionofworkstocreatedatasetsfortrainingmodels,isunsettled.

•FairdealingprovidesapotentialdefenseforcertainusesofcopyrightedmaterialbyAIdevelopers.Canadiancourtshavenotruled,however,onwhetherlarge-scaleAItrainingconstitutes“research”withinthemeaningoftheexception.Thefairdealingexceptionappliesonlytocertainenumeratedpurposes,includingresearch,privatestudy,criticism,reviewandnewsreporting.Toqualify,thedealingmustalsobe“fair”basedonamulti-factoranalysis.

Thingstodo

•Ifyouaretrainingamachinelearningmodel,evaluatewhetherthesourcematerialisprotectedbycopyrightandwhetheryourusecouldbecoveredunderthefairdealingexception.Whenpossible,seeklicensesorusepublicdomain/openlylicenseddata.

•IfyouaredeployinganAImodel,beawarethatoutputmayinfringethird-partyrightsifthemodelreproducessubstantialpartsoftrainingdata.

•Ifyouarefine-tuninganAImodel,assesscopyrightcomplianceinlightofthenewdatasetsandoutputs,particularlywherefine-tuningmayleadtomemorizationoroutputsimilarity.

•IfyouaredeployinganAIsystem,anticipaterequirementstomakecopyright-related

representationsandwarrantiesincommercialcontracts.Representationsmayinclude

thatyoursystemdoesnotinfringethird-partyrightsandthatappropriatepermissionsorlicensesareobtained.

13

Usefulresources

•“

ConsultationonCopyrightintheAgeofGenerativeArtificialIntelligence

,”Innovation,ScienceandEconomicDevelopmentCanada,2023

•“

WhyAIcouldmeanmorework,notless,forcopyrightlawyers

,”LawTimes,March12,2025

•“

TimetotalkaboutownershipofAI-generatedintellectualpropertyassets

,”Osler,December13,2021

14

PrivacyconsiderationswhendevelopingAI

Thingstoknow

•CanadianprivacylawsapplytothedevelopmentofAIifpersonalinformationis

processed,forexample,ifpersonalinformationisusedtotrainanAImodel,ifanAImodelorsystemprocessespersonalinformation,orifanAImodelorsystemgeneratesoutputthatincludespersonalinformation.

•“Personalinformation”isbroadlydefinedunderCanadianprivacylawsandincludes

informationthatcanbeusedaloneorincombinationwithotherinformationtoidentifyanindividual.

•Unlikeunderprivacylawsinsomejurisdictions,suchastheEuropeanUnion,Canadianprivacylawsareconsent-basedwithlimitedexceptionstoconsentanddonotincludea“legitimateinterests”legalbasisforprocessingpersonalinformation.

•Publiclyavailablepersonalinformationissubjecttoconsentandotherobligationsunderprivacylawswithlimitedexceptions.

•Itisuncertainwhetherortowhatextent“impliedconsent”mayberelieduponaslegalauthorityforcollectingorusingpersonalinformationtotrainanAImodelorgenerateoutput,orwhetherconsenttousepersonalinformationtotrainanAImodelorgenerateoutputcanbemadea“conditionofservice”(withnoabilitytooptout).

Thingstodo

•Identifyanddocumentyourlegalauthority(i.e.,consentoranexceptiontoconsent)forcollectingandusingpersonalinformationtotrainanAImodelorgenerateoutput.Whenrelyingonconsent,ensurethattheconsentisvalidandmeaningful.Whensourcing

personalinformationfromathirdparty,obtainassurancesthattheinformationwas

collectedlawfullyandthethirdpartyhasauthoritytodiscloseittoyoufortheintendedpurposes(e.g.,AImodeltraining).

•Rememberthat,withlimitedexceptions,publiclyavailablepersonalinformation,

includinginformationpublishedonline,issubjecttoprivacylawsinCanada(includingwhensubjecttoanexceptiontoconsent).

•Beopenandtransparent(e.g.,inyourpublicly-postedprivacypolicyanduserflows)aboutwhat,how,whenandwhypersonalinformationiscollected,usedordisclosedduringdevelopment,trainingoroperationoftheAImodelorsystem,andprovidethisinformationinanunderstandablemanner.DiscloseanyknownlimitationsabouttheaccuracyofAIoutputs(e.g.,ageofdatausedtotrainthemodel)andanyknownor

likelyrisks.

15

•Collect,useanddisclosepersonalinformationonlyfordocumented,legitimateandappropriatepurposes.

。DonotusepersonalinformationtodevelopordeployAIsystemsforpurposesthatviolate“no-gozones”identifiedbytheOfficeofthePrivacyCommissionerofCanada,