潮起亚太：海运运输体系的未来重构

ChangingTides:

MaritimeTransportinAsia-Pacific

ChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

AnAsianTransportObservatory(ATO)Publication

ChangingTides:MaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

September2025

Contributors:SudhirGota,AlvinMejia,MelEden,AdwaitLimaye,BenjaminSoco

Coverpagepicturecredits:KinseyWang(unsplash)

Suggestedcitation:AsianTransportObservatory.(September2025).Changingtides:MaritimeTransportinAsia

Pacific.AsianTransportObservatory.

/20.500.14706/01.022.00

;

/analytical-outputs/maritime-transport-2025

Disclaimer:TheAsianTransportObservatory(ATO)projectcollects,collates,andorganizesdatafrompubliclyavailableofficial,aswellasreputableandpeer-reviewedsecondarysources,whichmaycontainincompleteorinconsistentdata.ItisimportanttonotethattheATOdoesnotgeneratedata.Moreover,whiletheATOcarriesoutqualitycontrolandassuranceofwhetherthedataaretruthfullyreflectedintheATO,theATOdoesnotmakeanywarrantiesorrepresentationsastotheappropriateness,quality,accuracy,orcompletenessofthedataintheATOdatabases,andintheknowledgeproductsthatareproducedfromsuch.Usersareencouragedtoscrutinize,verify,interpret,andjudgethedatabeforeutilizingthem.

Supportedby:ASIANDEVELOPMENTBANK

ASIANINFRASTRUCTUREINVESTMENTBANK

2

SummaryChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Theworld'seconomiccenterofgravityhasmoved.TheAsia-Pacificregion,hometohalftheplanet'speopleand

economicoutput,isnowthepivotofglobaltrade.Whathappensonitswaters—stagnationorprogress—

reverberatesglobally,shapingsustainabledevelopmentfarbeyonditsshores.

Theoceancarriestheworld'sgoods.Roughly80%ofallinternationaltrademovesbysea;formanydevelopingAsian

nations,theshareishigherstill.In2023,thistradesurpassed12billiontons.Asiandevelopingnationsalone

discharged47%ofthisglobalvolume.Theregion'sdominanceisabsolute.Thisiswheretheworld'sfleetis

manufactured.In2024,Asiabuiltabout98%oftheworld'slargemerchantships.Threenations—thePeople's

RepublicofChina,theRepublicofKorea,andJapan—delivered93%ofallnewtonnagein2022.Theportsare

here,too.Asiacontrolshalfoftheworld'sportcapacityandhandlestwo-thirdsofglobalcontainerthroughput.Eight

ofthetenbest-connectedportsareinAsia.

Yet,thisaggregatesuccessconcealsdeepfaultlines.Ourassessmentrevealsthattheconvergentforcesof

decarbonization,digitalization,andgeopoliticsareremakingthearchitectureofmaritimetransport.This

transformationunfoldsonfiveinterconnectedfronts.

First,thetechnological.TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization'smandatefornet-zeroemissionscreatesanew

pathwayforshipping.Yetthedomesticsector,agrowingsourceofbothcarbonandairpollutants,remains

overwhelminglydependentonlegacyfuels.Theshapeofthetransitionwilldependontheinterplayofregulation,

fleetmodernization,andthebuild-outofnewfuelinfrastructure.Anewassetclassisbeingvisualized,fromgreen

ammoniaproductiontoshorepowerfacilities.

Thesecondfrontisphysical.Asiaiswarmingatnearlydoubletheglobalaverage.Theregion'sportsrepresenta

systemicrisktotheglobaleconomy.Tradelossesfromasingleportfailurecanbe100timesgreaterthanthecostof

thephysicaldamage.Theeconomiccaseforresilienceisacalculationofaverteddisruption.

Asia-Pacificregion,hometohalftheplanet'speopleandeconomicoutput,isnowthepivotofglobaltrade

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ChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

4

Thethirdfrontisequity.Adivergenceisclear.Whilehyper-connectedhubsinEastandSoutheastAsiaautomateand

expand,thePacificSmallIslandDevelopingStatesarestillisolated.Connectivitysuffers.Thecostsofclimateinactionaremounting.Inlandwaterways,avastbutneglectedasset,seepassengerservicesdecayfromalackofinvestment.Thegeographyofinvestmentdetermineswhetherhinterlandsconnecttoglobalmarketsorfallfurtherbehind.

Thefourthfrontishuman.Thistransitionrestsontheshouldersofthemaritimeworkforce.TheglobalmaritimeworkforceispredominantlyAsian.Theshifttowardautomation,greenfuels,andresilientinfrastructuredemandsaparallelinvestmentinnewskills.Ajusttransitionisessentialtoensurethisworkforceisretrainedandupskilled,notleftbehind.Thisisalsoanopportunitytoaddresslong-standingdisparities,suchasthefactthatwomencompriseamere1.2%oftheglobalseafarerworkforce.Managingthishumancapitalisascriticalasdevelopingnewtechnologiesorsecuringfinancialinvestment.

Thefifthfrontismoney.Thecapitalrequiredisnotpresent.OfficialDevelopmentAssistanceisafractionofwhatisneeded.Privatesectorinvestmentinportshasfallensharplyoverthepastdecade.Withoutstable,long-termregulatoryframeworks,privatecapitalremainsonthesidelines.AstheUnitedNationsDecadeofSustainableTransportbegins,thesituationisclear.Thetransitioncanbemanagedwithforesight,oritwillbemanagedbythecrisesthatfollow.Thepathwaysoutlinedinthisreportarenotpredictions.Theyarepossibilities,contingentonthedecisionsmadenow.Thedestinationremainsunwritten.

Contents

ChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Summary3

TableofFigures6

ListofAbbreviations7

Background8

TradeandMaritimeTransport9

InternationalShippingFleet10

PortsofCall:ConnectingtheWorld'sMaritimeTrade12

InlandWaterways&CoastalShipping16

DemandOutlook19

ShippingConnectivity20

ShippingEnergyConsumption22

ShippingCarbonEmissions24

MaritimeTransport–ResilienceandAdaptation27

ShippingandAirPollution29

DomesticShippingEmissionsOutlook31

ShippingHealthImpact32

ShipBreakingandRecycling33

ShippingEmployment35

InvestmentsinMaritimeTransport37

Conclusion41

References42

AnnexA:Informationonport-relatedprojects49

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ListofFiguresChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Figure1:Trademodalshare,computedbyvalue(2015)

Figure2:Trademodalshare,computedbyvolume(2015)

Figure3:Totalmaritimetrade,percentagesharesbyregion,2000–2023

Figure4:FlagsofRegistration(NumberofVessels)

Figure5:Numberofvesselsbyflag

Figure6:Merchantfleet(deadweighttonnage)inAsia-Pacific,pershiptype1980-2024

Figure7:Shipsbuiltbycountryofbuilding,annual(grosstonnage)

Figure8:MaritimePorts

Figure9:Containerportthroughput

Figure10:ContainerPortPerformanceIndex(2023)andTotalCalls

Figure11:Inlandwaterways

Figure12:CoastalshippingandInlandWaterwaysTraffic(BillionTons)

Figure13:People'sRepublicofChina-FreightTon-Kilometers

Figure14:FreightDemand,TrillionTon-Kilometers

Figure15:FleetDemand(thousandofvehicles)-DomesticShippinginAsiaPacific

Figure16:Linershippingconnectivityindex(2006-2023)

Figure17:Domesticnavigationenergyconsumption,bysource

Figure18:MaritimeEnergyTransitioninAsiaPacific

Figure19:DomesticShipping,CO2Emissions,MillionTons

Figure20:MaritimetransportCO2emissionsusingAIS(international+domestic),2019-2024

Figure21:CO2emissionsfrominternationalmarinebunkers(Mt)

Figure22:Tradevalueatrisk

Figure23:DomesticShippingshareinDomesticTransportAirPollutants

Figure24:Increaseinshippingemissions

Figure25:Shippingemissions

Figure26:HealthburdeninBaselinescenario

Figure27:Averageage-allships

Figure28:Shiprecycling

Figure29:Shareofwatertransportintotaltransportsectoremployment,2015-2023

Figure30:SeafarersupplyfromAsiain2021(thousands)

Figure31:ODAinWaterTransport

Figure32:PPPPortshareinTransportPPP

Figure33:PortinvestmentasashareofGDP

Figure34:InvestmentrequirementforportsasshareofGDP,2020-2035

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ListofAbbreviationsChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

AIIBAsiaInfrastructureInvestmentBank

ADBAsianDevelopmentBank

ATOAsianTransportObservatory

CPPIContainerPortPerformanceIndex

DWTDeadWeightTonnage

GHGGreenhouseGas

GAINSGreenhouseGasandAirPollutionInteractionsandSynergies

GDPGrossDomesticProduct

GTGrossTons

HFOHeavyFuelOil

IMOInternationalMaritimeOrganization

ITFInternationalTransportForum

LSCILinerShippingConnectivityIndex

LNGLiquefiedNaturalGas

LEDSLong-TermLowEmissionsDevelopmentStrategy

NWNationalWaterways

NDCNationallyDeterminedContribution

NOxNitrogenOxide

ODAOfficialDevelopmentAssistance

PM2.5ParticulateMatter2.5

PPPPublic-PrivatePartnership

RCPRepresentativeConcentrationPathway

R&DResearch&Development

SOxSulfurOxides

SDGSustainableDevelopmentGoals

TEUstwenty-footequivalentunit

UNUnitedNations

UNCTADUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

VRPVehicleRetirementProgram

7

BackgroundChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Theworld'seconomicanddemographiccenterofgravityhasshifted.TheAsia–Pacificregionishometooverhalfthe

world'spopulationandeconomicoutput.Whathappensintheregion—whetherstagnationorprogress—reverberates

globally,shapingthepursuitofsustainabledevelopmentfarbeyonditsshores.

Attheheartofthisglobalpivotliesacomplexmaritimetransportecosystem,thelifebloodofinternationaltrade.Yet,

thiscomplexsystemfacesaconvergenceofnewchallengesandopportunities.Decarbonization,AirPollution,and

digitalizationdemandnewwaysofoperating.Shiftinggeopoliticalcurrentsareredrawingtheoldtraderoutes.The

fundamentalarchitectureofmaritimetransportisbeingremade.

ThistransformationunfoldsagainstthebackdropoftheUnitedNationsDecadeofSustainableTransport,whichbegins

onJanuary1,2026.EstablishedbyGeneralAssemblyResolutionA/78/1481,thisinitiativerepresentsasignificant

globalcommitment.Itcallsforenhancedinternationalcooperation,capacity-building,andpolicyalignmenttoaddress

theenvironmental,social,andeconomicdimensionsoftransport.

Thisreportmapsthecurrentsofthischange.Itdocumentsacomprehensiveanalysisofthemaritimetransportsector's

currentstateandfuturetrajectory.Weexaminethediscussionfromseveralangles:theinternationalfleet,port

infrastructure,inlandwaterways,coastalshipping,andtheirimpacts.

Thisreportisbuiltonafoundationofdata.TheanalysiswithinthesepagesisrootedintheAsianTransport

Observatory(ATO),ajointinitiativebytheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andtheAsiaInfrastructureInvestmentBank

(AIIB).TheATOisanopenresource,createdtoprovideaclear,comprehensivepictureoftransportacross52regional

economiesusingmorethan450indicators.Itsupportstheplanninganddeliveryoftransportprojects,servesasavital

toolforgovernments,andtracksprogress—orthelackthereof—againstinternationalcommitments,fromthe2030

SustainableDevelopmentGoalstotheParisAgreementonClimateChange.Thisfoundationisenrichedbydatafrom

arangeofothersources—fromofficialcountrystatisticsandUNdatahubstoscholarlyjournals—tohelpnavigatethe

watersahead.

Attheheartoftheglobalpivotliesacomplexmaritimetransportecosystem,thelifebloodofinternationaltrade

8

TradeandMaritimeTransport

ChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Theoceancarriestheworld'sgoods.Roughly80%ofallinternationaltrademovesthisway(UNCTAD,2024b).FormanydevelopingAsiannations,thisshareisevenhigher.In2023,thetotalvolumeofthistradesurpassed12billiontons.Itsdominanceisabsolute,outshiningallothermodesinbothvalueandvolume(Figure1&Figure2).WithintheAsia-Pacificregion,itaccountsforroughly60%ofthetradebyvalueand80%byvolume(Figure3)(UNCTAD,2024b;Verschuuretal.,2022).Therefore,itisthelifelineoftheworld'seconomy.

In2023,thetotalvolumeofglobalmaritimetradeexceeded12billiontons,withshippingdistancesreachingabout62trillionton-miles(UNCTAD,2024b).However,thisgrowthwasn'tuniform.Itwasstimulatedbyseveralfactors:aresilientglobaleconomyprovidingatailwind,butdisruptionsforcedshipsontolonger,moredistantroutes.ThewarinUkraine,RedSeadisruptions,andlowwaterlevelsinthePanamaCanalallforcedshipsontolonger,moredistantroutes.

Forthepastdecade,globalsupplychainshavebeenreconfiguring.Thelateststatisticsshowtheconsequencesofthisshift,withthemostvisiblechangesinmaritimetradepatternsnowcenteredonthePeople'sRepublicofChinaandseveralotherAsiancountries(UNCTAD,2023).In2023,Asiandevelopingnationsalonedischarged47%oftheworld'stotalvolumewhileloading32%.Thechangeisdrivenbyarisingdemandfordrybulkcargo—ironoreandcoal—andbycrudeoilshipments,withmuchofitdestinedforthePeople'sRepublicofChina.

Air

75%73%

59%

58%

Land

36%

Sea

Asia-PacificEuropeand

NorthernAmerica

LatinAmerica

andthe

Caribbean

NorthernAfrica

andWestern

Asia

Sub-Saharan

Africa

Figure1:Trademodalshare,computedbyvalue(2015)

ATOvisualizationbasedonVerschuuretal.(2022)

Air

Land

Sea

81%

53%

94%

89%

86%

Asia-PacificEuropeandNorthern

America

LatinAmerica

andthe

Caribbean

NorthernAfrica

andWestern

Asia

Sub-Saharan

Africa

Figure2:Trademodalshare,computedbyvolume(2015)

ATOvisualizationbasedonVerschuuretal.(2022)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

AfricaAmericasEuropeAsiaandOceania

Figure3:Totalmaritimetrade,percentagesharesbyregion,2000–2023

ATOvisualizationbasedonUNCTAD(2025g)

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InternationalShippingFleetChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Formfollowsfunction.Asglobaltradehasshifted,sohasthecompositionoftheAsianshippingfleet.Ininternational

maritimetransport,theworldmerchantfleetisdetailedbyflagofregistrationandshiptype.Bulkcommoditieslike

ironore,coal,andgrainhavegrown,surpassingfossiloil'sshare.Consequently,drybulkcarriershaveincreasedtheir

share,outpacingoiltankers.Withtheriseofcontainerization,breakbulkcargoisnowmovedincontainers.The

containershipsandotherspecializedvesselshavecontinuedtoovertaketheshareofgeneralcargoships.

Around40%oftheglobalvesselscarryflagsofAsianeconomies,inparticular,developingAsianeconomies(Figure

4).Athirdoftheglobalvesselfleetcarriedflagsfrom6developingAsiancountriesin2024(Indonesia,People’s

RepublicofChina,MarshallIslands,VietNam,India,Malaysia,Türkiye)(UNCTAD,2025c).

Overhalf(54%)oftheglobalvesselfleetisownedbyeconomiesinAsia-Pacific.Fifty-eightpercent(58%)ofthe

vesselsownedbyAsianeconomiescarrynationalflags(Figure5).Ahigherpercentageofvesselsownedby

developingAsianeconomiescarrynationalflags(70%)asopposedtothosethatareownedbythedevelopedAsian

economies(43%).

In2024,Asiabuiltabout98%ofglobalseagoingpropelledmerchantshipsof100grosstons(GT)andabove,

excludinginlandwaterwayvessels,fishingvessels,militaryvessels,yachts,andoffshorefixedandmobileplatforms

andbarges(UNCTAD,2025d)(Figure6).However,withinAsia,lowertoupper-middle-incomenationsholdlessthana

thirdofAsia'scontainer-registeredshipdeadweighttonnage(UNCTAD,2025c).Themajorityisregisteredinhigh-

incomeAsia.

Figure4:FlagsofRegistration(NumberofVessels)

ATOvisualizationbasedonUNCTAD(2025c)

Figure5:Numberofvesselsbyflag

ATOvisualizationbasedonUNCTAD(2024b)

10

ChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Asiaisthedominantforceintheglobalshipbuildingindustry,mainlyduetoitscompetitiveadvantageinmaterials,

power,andlaborcosts(AllenBrooks,2025).Threecountriesdominateglobalshipbuilding.In2022,thePeople'sRepublicofChina,theRepublicofKorea,andJapandelivered93%ofallnewtonnage,withChinaaloneaccountingfora47%share(UNCTAD,2025d)(Figure7).SeveralAsiancountrieshaveactivelypromotedshipbuildingasa

strategicsunrisesector.Thissupportstemsfromtheindustry'sabilitytogenerateforeigncurrency,createasignificantnumberofjobs,andstimulatedemandfortheindustrialoutputsessentialtotheconstructionprocess.

India'sCoastalShippingBill,2024(ParliamentofIndia,2024),isanexampleofusingcabotagepolicytocreateaprotected,demand-drivenmarket.ForIndianships,itstreamlinesoperationsbyremovingthegeneraltradinglicense,enhancingtheircompetitivenessinhomewaters.Ontheotherhand,foreignvesselsfacenewregulations;theymayengageincoastaltrade,butonlyunderaspecificlicenseissuedbytheDirectorGeneralofShipping.Importantly,thislicensingconditionisexplicitlydesignedtobolsterIndianshipbuildingandseafareremployment.ThisprotectedmarketismanagedthroughabiennialNationalCoastalandInlandShippingStrategicPlan,adynamicinstrumentforrouteplanningandintegratingcoastaltradewithinlandwaterways,ensuringthegrowthofadomesticallybuiltfleet.IndiaaimstoachievetheambitioustargetsofmakingIndiaoneofthetop10shipbuildingnationsby2030,andoneofthe

top5countriesinshipbuildingby2047(PIB-GovernmentofIndia,n.d.).

VietNam's"TransportStrategy2020"(GovernmentofVietNam,2013)echoessimilarpriority,focusingonbuilding

shipsupto100,000DWTandrepairingshipsupto150,000DWTforbothdomesticandexportmarkets.

6000

Assuming1980asbase100

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

,,,li

0

OiltankersBulkcarriersGeneralcargoContainershipsOthertypesof

ships

Figure6:Merchantfleet(deadweighttonnage)inAsia-Pacific,pershiptype1980-2024

ATOvisualizationbasedonUNCTAD(2025c)

Figure7:Shipsbuiltbycountryofbuilding,annual(grosstonnage)

ATOvisualizationbasedonUNCTAD(2025d)

11

PortsofCall:ConnectingtheChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

World'sMaritimeTrade

Inrecentdecades,ports,thearteriesoftheglobaleconomy,haveundergoneamassiveexpansion.Asia,theepicenter

ofthisactivity,holdshalfofglobalportinfrastructure.Asiaclearlyservesasthecentralhubofthisshift,controlling

halfoftheworld'sportcapacityandhandlingtwo-thirdsoftheglobalcontainerthroughputtwenty-footequivalent

unit/TEUs(Figure9).Intermsofthetrade,Asiahandles63%ofglobalcontainertrade.Theabsolutenumbersare

overwhelming.Yet,adeeperanalysisrevealsadevelopmentallag.Whennormalizedbypopulation,Asia's

infrastructuredeficitbecomesapparent,trailingOECDeconomiesbyasignificantmargin.TheAsia-Pacific’sport

infrastructureamountstoonly210squaremetersperthousandpeople,one-thirdofthe630squaremetersavailable

inOECDeconomies.Theabsolutedominanceinvolumehasnotyettranslatedtoequivalentinfrastructureforits

population(Hanson&Nicholls,2020).

Figure8:GlobalPortsLocations

ATOvisualizationbasedon(Upply,2025)

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ChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Toclosethegap,Asiahasalsopioneeredthe

widespreaduseofdryports—inlandhubsthatfunctionasextensionsoftheircoastalcounterparts.Thesefacilitiesmanagecargo,storage,andinspectionsawayfromthecrowdedseaports,offeringavitallifelinetolandlockedcountries.Today,Asiaishometosome275dryports(UNESCAP,2024),anetworkthatredefinestheflowofgoodsandconnectspeoplefarfromthecoasttotheglobalmaritimetrade.

TEUperthousandpopulation

Efficientcontainerportsareessentialforexport-drivengrowth,supportinginvestmentsandjobcreation.Inefficienciescreateobstacles.Delaysatasingleportcanripplethroughanentiresupplychain,raisingcostsandunderminingcompetitiveness,withlandlockedandsmallislanddevelopingstateshithardest.Inthiscompetitivelandscape,Asianportsinupper-middle-incomeandhigh-incomeeconomiesleadtheglobalContainerPortPerformanceIndex(CPPI)rankings(Figure10).Sixoutofthetop10portsbasedontheCPPIrankingsareinAsia-Pacific(TheWorldBank,2024).

Countriesaremovingtoenhanceportefficiency.Türkiyeisfocusingonimprovingitsstandinginthegloballogisticsarenawhilealsomodernizingitsmaritimesector.TheTwelfthDevelopmentPlan(2024-2028)(PresidencyoftheRepublicofTürkiye,2023)outlinesgoalstoboostthecountry'srankingintheLogisticsPerformanceIndexto25andincreaseitstotalcontainerhandlingto17.4millionTEUs.TheMobilityVehiclesand

10,000

1,000

100

10

1

.Singapore

HongKong,China

NewZealand

People's

MalaysiaRepublicofChina

RepublicofKoreaAustralia

SriLanka

●

VietNam

Thailand

Philippines

Japan

Georgia

Bangladesh

RussianFederation

India

Myanmar

Pakistan

020,00040,00060,00080,000100,000120,000140,000160,000180,000GDPpercapita,USD

Figure9:Containerportthroughput

ATOvisualizationbasedonUNCTAD(2025a)

13

Figure10:Containerportperformanceindex(2023)andtotalcalls

ATOvisualizationbasedonTheWorldBank(2024)

14

TechnologiesRoadmap(GovernmentofRepublicofTürkiye,2022)furtherspecifiestargetsforitsshippingindustry,

includingincreasingthecapacityutilizationofitstop10containerportsto75%andraisingthelocalizationratefor

shipordersto35%.Thisdualfocusonefficiencyanddomesticproductionshowsacountrypositioningitselfforfuture

growthandself-sufficiencyinthemaritimespace.

InthePeople'sRepublicofChina,portconnectivityandautomationaremajorpolicypriorities.Thegoalistoelevate

therailwayaccessratetomajorcoastalportstoover90%by2025,atargetfoundinthe14thFive-Year

DevelopmentPlanforWaterTransport.TheFive-YearActionPlantoAcceleratetheConstructionofaStrong

TransportationNation(2023-2027)(GovernmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,2023b)advancesthisbyaiming

tobuildatleastfiveautomatedcontainerterminals.

InVietNam,thedevelopmentof"greenports"isacriticalcomponent.Thepoliciesaimtoestablishandapplygreen

portcriteria,withavisionfor100%ofnewlybuiltinlandwaterwayportsandallseaportstoapplythesestandards.

Thisincludesconvertingallloadingandunloadingmachineryfromfossilfuelstoelectricityandgreenenergyand

planningtheinfrastructuretosupplygreenenergytotransportvehiclesinurbanareas.

InIndonesia,the"NationalMediumTermDevelopmentPlan2020-2024"(GovernmentofIndonesia,2020)provides

concretetargetsforinfrastructureimprovement,includingtheconstructionof"36newferryports"andensuringthat

sevenmainportsmeetinternationalstandards.Theplanalsoprioritizesthedevelopmentofmajorports,suchasthe

IntegratedMainPortNetworks,andtheexpansionofportsthatsupportseatollsandarelocatedinpriorityareas,

includingthosecateringtocruisetourism.Thegoalistoimproveinter-islandtradeandtheoverallsupplychain.To

ensurethesafetyandsecurityoftheseassets,the"IndonesiaBlueEconomyRoadmap"(GovernmentofIndonesia,

2023)mandatesthe"Implementationofportauditand'portriskassessment'andrelatedfacilitiesaccordingto

internationallyrecognizedsafetystandardsandrules".

Asiaservesasthecentralhubofthisshift,controllinghalfoftheworld'sportcapacityandhandlingtwo-thirdsoftheglobalcontainerthroughputtwenty-footequivalentunit/TEUs

15

InlandWaterways&CoastalShippingChangingTides:ThefutureofMaritimeTransportinAsiaPacific

Globally,thenetworkofnavigablewaterwaysspansapproximately623,000kilometers(Beyer,2018)(Figure11).

Asiaholdsnearlyhalfofthisnetwork.Asiaisendowedwithextensiveriversystems,includingtheYangtze,PearlRiver,

Mekong,Ganges-Brahmaputra,andIndus.Theseriversandtheirdeltas,suchasVietnam'sRedRiverandMekong

Deltas,serveasnaturalconduitsfortradeandconnectivity.TheextensivesystemofnavigablewaterwaysacrossAsia

offersasignificant,thoughunderutilized,infrastructuraladvantage.

Historically,domesticshippinghasservedastheprimarycon