【世界银行】为更清洁的天空而耕种：农业如何为清洁空气解决方案做出贡献-2026

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FarmingforClearerSkies:

HowAgricultureContributesto

CleanAirSolutions

THEWORLDBANKPR治GREEN

IBRD.IDA

*ESMAP

Assistanceprogram

Disclaimer

Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthisworkdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofTheWorldBank,itsBoardofExecutiveDirectors,orthegovernmentstheyrepresent.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracy,completeness,orcurrencyofthedataincludedinthisworkanddoesnotassumeresponsibilityforanyerrors,omissions,ordiscrepanciesintheinformationorliabilitywithrespecttotheuseoforfailuretousetheinformation,methods,processes,orconclusionssetforth.Theboundaries,colors,denominations,andotherinformationshownonanymapinthisworkdonotimplyanyjudgmentonthepartofTheWorldBankconcerningthelegalstatusofanyterritoryortheendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.Thecontentsofthisworkareintendedforgeneralinformationalpurposesonlyandarenotintendedtoconstitutelegal,securities,orinvestmentadvice,anopinionregardingtheappropriatenessofanyinvestment,orasolicitationofanytype.SomeoftheorganizationsofTheWorldBankGrouportheiraffiliatesmayhaveaninvestmentin,provideotheradviceorservicesto,orotherwisehaveafinancialinterestin,certainofthecompaniesandpartiesnamedherein.NothinghereinshallconstituteorbeconstruedorconsideredtobealimitationuponorwaiveroftheprivilegesandimmunitiesofanyoftheorganizationsofTheWorldBankGroup,allofwhicharespecificallyreserved.

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Acknowledgements

Thisdeepdiveexploresthewaysagriculturecontributesto,andisafectedby,airpollutionacrosstheworldbeforegoingontosuggestviable,provenapproachestopolicyandpracticetobreakthisnegativecycle—sothattheagriculturesectorcancontributemeaningfullytoalivableplanetwithcleanair.

ThisreportcontributestowardstheWorldBank’s“AcceleratingAccesstoCleanAirforaLivablePlanet”report,whichidentifiesthemainsourcesofcurrentairpollutionandusesscenariomodelingtodemonstratehowintegratedclimatechangeandairqualitymanagementpoliciescouldyieldsignificantreductionsinfutureairpollution.

ThisagriculturedeepdivewaspreparedbyaWorldBankteamconsistingofAimeeMpambara,AkashMehta,AnjaliAcharyaandFatmaRekikandoverseenbyMarianneGrosclaude.

ItwaseditedbyJenniferStastnyanddesignedbyMariaanvanZyl.

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Contents

Mainmessages1

1.Overview2

2.CropResidueBurning4

3.FertilizersandPesticides10

4.LivestockOperationsandManureManagement17

5.SoilHealth,DeforestationandFarmMachinery20

6.AWayForward24

ListofFigures

Figure1:Cropresiduebiomassburnedinthetopsevencountries5

Figure2:Globalcropbiomassburnedbycroptypein20216

Figure3:Artificialfertilizeruse,bynutrientandregion(kilogramsperhectareofcropland)11

Figure4:Nitrogenfertilizeruseperregion12

Figure5:Pesticideusepercroplandarea,byregion(kilogramsperhectare)16

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Listofabbreviations

FAO

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

FAOSTAT

StatisticsdatabaseoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

GHG

Greenhousegas

kg

Kilograms

kg/ha

kilogramsperhectare

MtCO2e

Milliontonsofcarbondioxideequivalent

NUE

Nitrogenuseefficiency

tCO2e

tonsofcarbondioxideequivalent

TFP

TotalFactorProductivity

VOC

Volatileorganiccompound

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MainMessages

1.Airpollutionandagriculturehaveacomplexrelationshipinwhichagriculturalactivitiesbothcontributeto,andareimpactedby,airpollution.Agriculturalpracticessuchascropresiduesburning,pesticideapplication,fertilizeruse,andlivestockmanagementreleasepollutantsintotheatmosphere,whileairpollutioncanadverselyafectcropyields,soilhealth,andoverallagriculturalproductivity.

2.Particulatematter(PM)withadiameterof2.5micrometersorsmaller,knownasPM2.5,isasignificantairpollutantwithadverseeffectsonhumanhealthandtheenvironment.PM2.5thatoriginatesinagriculturalareascantravelfardistancestoafectmorepopulousurbanareas.

3.Agriculturecontributestoairpollutionthroughtheburningofcropresidue,acommonpracticeinmanyagriculturalregions,whichreleasessignificantamountsofPM2.5intotheatmosphere.Farmersoftenburncropresiduestoclearfieldsquicklyforthenextplantingseason,butthispracticecontributestoairpollutionandposeshealthrisks.

4.Theover-applicationoffertilizersandpesticidescangeneratePM2.5throughvolatilization(changingfromasolidtoagas)andchemicalreactions.SpraydriftduringpesticideapplicationandthespreadoffertilizerparticlescontributetoairbornePM2.5levels,particularlyduringfieldapplication.

5.Feedlots,animalhousingfacilities,andcertainmethodsofmanuremanagementproducelargequantitiesofPM2.5.Ammonia,methane,nitrousoxide,anddustarecommonlyemittedairpollutants.

6.Agriculturalactivitiessuchasplowing,tilling,andharvestingdisturbthesoil,leadingtothegenerationofdustparticles.Winderosionexacerbatesthereleaseoffinesoilparticlesintotheair,contributingtoPM2.5pollution,especiallyinaridandsemi-aridregions.

7.Reducingairpollutionfromagriculturerequiresamultifacetedapproachthatincludespolicy,technology,educationandawareness-raising,andcollaborationtoovercomevarioustechnical,economic,institutional,andbehavioralbarriers.Workablesolutionsareavailable,butrollingthemoutwillrequirecreatinganenablingenvironmentandincentivesfortransitioningtosustainableagriculturepractices.Atthesametime,supportforpracticesthatcontributetotheexcessiveuseofinputsthatcontributetoairpollutionneedstobewithdrawn.

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1.Overview

Airpollutionandagriculturehaveacomplexrelationshipinwhichagriculturalactivitiesbothcontributeto,andareimpactedby,airpollution.Agriculturalpracticessuchaspesticideapplication,fertilizeruse,andlivestockmanagementreleasepollutantsintotheatmosphere,whileairpollutioncanadverselyafectcropyields,soilhealth,andoverallagriculturalproductivity.Mitigatingairpollutionfromagriculturalactivitieswhileaddressingitsimpactsonagricultureisthereforecrucialforbothsustainablefoodproductionandenvironmentalhealth.

Pesticidesandfertilizers—keyinputsofmodernfarming—canemitvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs),ammonia,andnitrogenoxidesintotheair,contributingtosmogformationandairpollution.Somepesticidesalsoformsecondarypollutantswhentheyreactwithotherchemicalsintheatmosphere.Atthesametime,airpollutioncanhavedetrimentalefectsonagriculture.Particulatemattermeasuring2.5micrometersorlessindiameter(PM2.5)andground-levelozone—twocommonairpollutants—candamagecropsbyinterferingwithphotosynthesis,reducingcropyields,andimpairingplantgrowth.Additionally,airpollutioncandegradesoilquality,disruptnutrientcycling,andharmbeneficialsoilmicroorganismsessentialforhealthycropgrowth.

Therelationshipbetweenagricultureandairpollution

Particulatematter(PM)withadiameterof2.5micrometersorsmaller,knownasPM2.5,isasignificantairpollutantwithadverseefectsonhumanhealthandtheenvironment.AlthoughPM2.5pollutioniscommonlyassociatedwithindustrialemissionsandvehicleexhaustfumes,agriculturealsoplaysanotableroleinitsgeneration.Thereareseveralwaysagriculturecancontributetoairpollution:

·Theburningofcropresidue,acommonpracticeinmanyagriculturalregions,releasessignificantamountsofPM2.5intotheatmosphere.Farmersoftenburncropresiduestoclearfieldsquicklyforthenextplantingseason,butthispracticecontributestoairpollutionandposeshealthrisks.

·Theover-applicationoffertilizersandpesticidescangeneratePM2.5throughvolatilization(changingfromasolidtoagas)andchemicalreactions.SpraydriftduringpesticideapplicationandthespreadoffertilizerparticlescontributetoairbornePM2.5levels,particularlyduringfieldapplication.

·Intensivelivestockfarmingproduceslargequantitiesofparticulatematterfrommanuremanagement,feedlots,andanimalhousingfacilities.Dustfromhandlingfeed,beddingmaterials,andmanurecontributestoPM2.5pollutioninagriculturalareaswithconcentratedanimaloperations.

·Agriculturalactivitiessuchasplowing,tilling,andharvestingdisturbthesoil,leadingtothegenerationofdustparticles.Winderosionexacerbatesthereleaseoffinesoilparticlesintotheair,contributingtoPM2.5pollution,especiallyinaridandsemi-aridregions.

Impactsofairpollutiononagriculturalproductivity

Airpollution,aglobalenvironmentalchallenge,candegradesoil,reducecropyields,andweakenplants’immunesystems.Airpollutantssuchasozone,nitrogendioxide,andparticulatematter(PM)caninhibitphotosynthesis,impairingplantgrowthandreducingcropyields.Particulatematterdepositedonthesurfaceofsoilalterssoilstructure,reduceswaterinfiltration,andincreasessoilerosionrates.Soildegradationcausedbyairpollutiondiminishessoilfertility,impairsnutrientcycling,andlimitsrootdevelopment,afectingcropgrowthandproductivity.Airpollutantsweakenplantimmunesystems,makingthemmoresusceptibletopests,diseases,andenvironmentalstressors.Elevatedlevelsofsulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxidescanincreaseplants’vulnerabilitytofungalpathogensandinsectinfestations,furthercompromisingagriculturalproductivity.Theimpactofairpollutiononagriculturevariesdependingonfactorssuchaspollutantconcentration,croptype,andenvironmentalconditions,highlightingtheneedforlocalizedresearchandmitigationstrategies.

Decreasedagriculturalproductivityduetoairpollutionhassignificanteconomicimplications,afectingfarmerincomes,foodprices,andglobalfoodsupplychains.Lossesincropyieldsandqualityresultinreducedprofitabilityforfarmers,leadingtoeconomichardshipsandpotentialfoodshortages,especiallyinregionsthatrelyheavilyonagriculture.A1percentincreaseinPM2.5concentrationwouldcauseagriculturaltotalfactorproductivitytodeclinebyabout0.104percent,whichcorrespondstoaboutUS$5billionperyearbasedonagrossglobaloutputvalueofaboutUS$5trillionperyear1.AgricultureTotalFactorProductivity(TFP)isameasureofefficiencyconsideringallinputssuchaslabor,land,capital,material(machinery,seeds,fertilizers,pesticides,etc.)toproduceagivenoutput.Itdifersfromtheproductivitywhichconsidersonlyoneinputsuchasland(landproductivity)orlabor(laborproductivity),whereasTFPprovidesamorecomprehensiveviewbyconsideringthecombinedefectofallinputs.Itiscalculatedbydividingtherealoutputproducedoveraperiodbytherealinputusedduringthesameperiod.

Therelationshipbetweenairpollutionandclimatechangecompoundstheseverityoftheissue.Airpollutionisthoughttoberesponsibleforupto40percentofclimatechange,whiletherisingtemperaturesthatoccurwithachangingclimatecansignificantlyreducecropproduction.

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1.DongDandWangJ.2023.“Airpollutionasasubstantialthreattotheimprovementofagriculturaltotalfactorproductivity:Globalevidence.”EnvironmentInternational.173:107842.

/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107842

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2.CropResidueBurning

Theburningofcropresiduehasbecomeaprevalentagriculturalpracticeinrecentdecades,reaching402millionmetrictons(tons)globallyin2021—a64percentincreasecomparedto1961data.Morethanhalfofthetotalbiomassburned—about225milliontons—canbeattributedtojustsevencountries:China,India,theUnitedStates,Brazil,Russia,Argentina,andIndonesia(Figure1).

WithinAsia—whichcollectivelyaccountsfor194milliontonsofbiomassburned—Chinaisthelargestcontributor,followedbyIndia.Chinaburnsabout70milliontonsofcropresidueseachyear,mostlyintheNorthChinaPlainandpartsoftheYangtzeRiverbasin.Afterrice,wheat,andcornareharvested,farmersburnthecropresiduestoquicklyprepareforthenextplantingseason,contributingtohazeandsmoginmajorcities.InIndia,thepracticeiscommoninthestatesofPunjab,Haryana,andUttarPradesh;about23milliontonsofpaddystubbleareburnteachyearinPunjabandHaryanaalone.ThispracticecontributessignificantlytothesevereairpollutionobservedinDelhiandsurroundingareasduringthewintermonths.CountrieslikeThailand,Indonesia,andVietnamalsoexperiencehighlevelsofcropresidueburning.Here,thepracticeislinkedtothecultivationofriceandotherstaplecrops,leadingtotransboundaryhazepollutionthatafectsneighboringcountries.

IntheUnitedStates,cropresidueburningoccursinagriculturalstatessuchasCalifornia,Texas,andArkansas.AlthoughregulatedandlessprevalentthaninChinaandIndia,aboutonemilliontonofcropresiduesareburnedeachyear,contributingtolocalizedairqualityissues.

AlthoughChina,India,Brazil,Russia,andArgentinaareexpectedtoreducetheirbiomassburningby2030,theUnitedStatesandIndonesiaareexpectedtoincreasetheirs.Chinaisexpectedtoremainthecountrywiththehighestlevelsofcropresidueburningin2030,eventhoughtheamountofbiomassitburnswilldeclineto57milliontons.TheUnitedStatesisexpectedtosurpassIndiaasthesecond-placedcountryin2030,takingsecondplacewith45milliontonsofbiomassburnedagainst39milliontonsforIndia.

Box1:Anexplanatorynoteoncarbondioxideandemissionsfromburningbiomass

TheFAOSTATemissionsdatadoesnotincludecarbondioxide

becausecarbondioxideemissionsfromburningbiomassare

assumedtobebalancedbycarbonuptakeduringthegrowthoftheplantsandarethereforeconsideredpartofthenaturalcarboncycle.

Inotherwords,whenbiomassisburned,thecarbondioxidereleasedisroughlyequivalenttotheamountabsorbedbyplantsduringtheirgrowth.However,otheremissions(likemethaneandnitrousoxide)arenotpartofarapidnaturalcycle.

Figure1:Cropresiduebiomassburnedinthetopsevencountries

In2030,Chinawillremainthecountrythatburnsthemostbiomass,followedbytheUnitedStates,whichisprojectedtorecordan

increaseinthelevelofbiomassburned.

Source:WorldBankSource:WorldBankgraphbasedonFAOSTATdata.2

TheamountofbiomassburnedinEuropehasdeclinedby10milliontonssince1961,spearheadedbyItaly,wherebiomassburneddecreasedby1.6milliontons,followedbyRomania,Spain,andPortugal.

ReductionsintheamountofbiomassburnedwerealsoobservedinSouthAfricaandJapan,whichrecordeddeclinesofmorethan1.2milliontonseach.

Cropsassociatedwithburningresiduesandrelatedpollutants

Maize,rice,wheat,andsugarcaneproductionarethecropsmostcommonlyassociatedwithresidueburning.3,4Farmersoftenresorttoburningcropresiduetoclearfieldsquicklyinpreparationforthenextplantingseason.Maizeisthecropmostcommonlyburned,at205milliontonsburnedin2021(abouthalfofthetotalcropresidueburnedthatyear).Afterasubstantialmargincomesrice(91milliontons)andwheat(88milliontons),followedbysugarcaneat17milliontons(Figure2).

2.WorldBankgraphbasedondatafromFAOSTAT,thestatisticsdatabaseoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO).

/faostat/en/#data/GI

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3.KumarI,BandaruV,YamprachaS,SunL,andFungtammasanB.2020.“LimitingRiceandSugarcaneResidueBurninginThailand:CurrentStatus,ChallengesandStrategies.”JournalofEnvironmentalManagement.Vol276.

/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111228

4.SuriyawongP

,ChuetorS,SamaeH,PiriyakarnsakulS,AminM,FuruuchiM,HataM,InerbM,andPhairuangW.2023.“AirborneParticulateMatterfromBiomassBurninginThailand:RecentIssues,Challenges,andOptions.”Heliyon.Vol9,Issue3.

/10.1016/j

.heliyon.2023.e14261

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Figure2:Globalcropbiomassburnedbycroptypein2021.

(Maizeisthemostburnedcropresiduebyasubstantialmargin.)

Source:WorldBankgraphbasedonFAOSTATdata.5

Theburningofcropresiduesreleasesseveralkindsofpollutantsintotheatmosphere.Sulfurdioxide,carbonoxides,nitrogenoxides,ammonia,andpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbonsareamongthepollutantsemittedwhencropsareburned.6,7,8,9,10Thesepollutantscontributetoairpollution,posingseverehealthriskstonearbycommunitiesduetotheformationofhazardoussmog.Burningcropresidesalsoemitsgreenhousegases(GHGs),especiallymethaneandnitrousoxide,whichhaveagreaterglobalwarmingpotentialthancarbondioxideat28and273timeshigher,respectively.11Theestimatefor2021,themostrecentyeardataisavailable,suggeststhatworldwideemissionsofmethaneandnitrousoxidefromcropresidueburningaloneexceeded38milliontonsofcarbondioxideequivalent(MtCO2e).12ThisfigureisequivalenttoMozambique’stotalGHGemissionsforthesameyear.13

5.WorldBankgraphbasedonFAOSTATdata.

/faostat/en/#data/GI

6.LamnoiS,BoonuparaT,SumitsawanS,VongruangP,PrapamontolT,UdomkunP,KajitvichyanukulP.2024.“UnveilingtheAftermath:ExploringResidueProfilesofInsecticides,Herbicides,andFungicidesinRiceStraw,Soils,andAirPost-MixedPesticide-ContaminatedBiomassBurning.”Toxics.12(1):86.

/10.3390/toxics12010086

7.SuriyawongP,ChuetorS,SamaeH,PiriyakarnsakulS,AminM,FuruuchiM,HataM,InerbM,andPhairuangW.2023.“AirborneParticulateMatterfromBiomassBurninginThailand:RecentIssues,Challenges,andOptions.”Heliyon.Vol9,Issue3.

/10.1016/j

.heliyon.2023.e14261

8.JainN,BhatiaA,andPathakH.2014.“EmissionofAirPollutantsfromCropResidueBurninginIndia.”AerosolandAirQualityResearch,14:422–430.doi:10.4209/aaqr.2013.01.0031

9.GaoR,JiangW,GaoW,SunS.2017.“EmissionInventoryofCropResidueOpenBurninganditsHigh-ResolutionSpatialDistributionin2014forShandongProvince,China.”AtmosphericPollutionResearch.Vol8,Issue3.

/10.1016/j.apr.2016.12.009

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.PhongpanSandMosierA.2003.“EfectofCropResidueManagementonNitrogenDynamicsandBalanceinaLowlandRiceCroppingSystem.”NutrientCyclinginAgroecosystems.66,133–142.

/10.1023/A:1023915015259

11.

https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_TechnicalSummary.pdf

12

.WorldBankfigurebasedonFAOSTATdata.

11

13.Mozambique’semissionsdatacanbeobtainedfromEDGAR,theEuropeanCommission’sEmissionsDatabaseforGlobalAtmosphericResearch:

https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2023#data_download

Theburningofcropresiduessignificantlyincreasespeople’sexposuretotoxicpesticidesandtraceelements.Pesticidespresentintheresidueswhenburnedarereleasedintotheairasparticulatematterandaerosols,whichcanbeinhaledbynearbypopulations.Theburningprocesscanalsoalterthecompositionandconcentrationofpesticides,leadingtopotentiallyhigherlevelsofexposure.14Thesepesticidesincludeherbicides,fungicides,andinsecticides,whichoftencontainingredientsthatareharmfultohumanhealthandcantriggerDNAmutations.Burningcropresiduesalsoreleasesheavymetalssuchaslead,mercury,cadmium,andarsenicintotheatmosphereasparticulatematterandaerosols,inwhichformtheycantravellongdistances,posingseriousenvironmentalandhealthhazards.Heavymetalscanaccumulateinthehumanbodyovertimeandpersistintheenvironmentforextendedperiods,causingarangeofadversehealthefectsandleadingtothelong-termcontaminationofsoilandwaterresources.15

Driversofcrop-burningpractices

Insomedevelopingcountries,burningisatraditionalagriculturalmethodusedtoquicklypreparethesoilforthenextplantingseason.Thispracticeispartlydrivenbyalackofmachinerytopreparethesoil.Otherfactorsthatcontributetothepracticeofburningcropresiduesinclude:

·Timepressures.Inregionswithshortintervalsbetweencropcycles,farmersmayresorttoburningresiduestoclearfieldsquicklyandprepareforthenextsowingseason.Thisisparticularlytrueforrice-wheatcroppingsystems(Box2).

·Economicconstraints.Farmersoftenburncropresiduesduetothelackofafordableandaccessiblealternatives.Removingandmanagingresiduesthroughmechanicalmeanscanbecostlyandtime-consuming.Insomecases,burningischeapercomparedtoalternativemethodsofresiduemanagementsuchasmulching,composting,ormechanicalincorporation.Insomeregions,asalreadynotedabove,thereisalackofaccesstoappropriatemachinerythatcanhandlecropresiduesefficiently,makingburningtheonlyfeasibleoption.

·Lackofawareness.Manyfarmersareunawareoftheenvironmentalandhealthimpactsofburningcropresidues.Traditionalpracticesandtheabsenceofefectiveoutreachandeducationprogramsperpetuatethepractice.Somefarmersbelievethatburningresidueshelpsreturnnutrientstothesoil,althoughintruththispracticeleadstothelossoforganicmatterandsoildegradation.

·Inadequateimplementationofregulations.Whileregulationsandpoliciestocurbtheburningofcropresiduesmayexist,inadequateenforcementandsupportforfarmershindertheirefectiveness.

14.LamnoiS,BoonuparaT,SumitsawanS,VongruangP,PrapamontolT,UdomkunP,KajitvichyanukulP.2024.“UnveilingtheAftermath:ExploringResidueProfilesofInsecticides,Herbicides,andFungicidesinRiceStraw,Soils,andAirPost-MixedPesticide-ContaminatedBiomassBurning.”Toxics.12(1):86.

/10.3390/toxics12010086

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15.EdelsteinMandBen-HurM.2018.“HeavyMetalsandMetalloids:Sources,RisksandStrategiestoReduceTheirAccumulationinHorticulturalCrops.”ScientiaHorticulturae.Vol234.

/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.12.039

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Mitigationstrategies

Severalalternativeon-siteandoff-sitesolutionstocropresidueburninghavebeenproposed.Theseincludeinstallingwaste-to-biogastechnologies,16plantingalternativecrops,usingresiduesformulchingorcomposting,incorporatingresiduesintothesoil,harvestingresiduesforuseasfeed,andusingresiduestoproducepaper—allofwhichhavebeensuccessfullypilotedandimplementedacrossSouthernAsia.17

Manyofthesesolutionsofferseveralco-benefits.Forexample,adoptingzero-tillagesystems—facilitatedbytoolssuchastheHappySeeder,whichcutsthroughrice-cropresidueanddepositswheatseedsintothesoilwithouttheneedforpriortilling18—hasdemonstratedincreasedyields,incomes,andsoilbiodiversity.19Othersolutions,suchharvestingthestubble,resultsinresourcesthatcanpotentiallybemarketed.Furthermore,theadoptionofshort-durationcropvarieties,whichreducesthetimebetweenharvestandsowing,allowsfarmerstooptimizeresourceuse,requiringfewerinputs.20

However,someno-burnsolutionscomewithunintendedconsequences.Regenerativepractices(suchasreturningresiduetothesoilorusingresidueforlivestockfodderortoproducebiochar)ofera“no-burn”pathwaytoaddressingairpollutionwhilesimultaneouslybuildingsoilhealthandpreservingbiodiversity.Suchpracticesareoftenconsideredtobethemostviablenear-termpathwaytoincreasingorganiccarboninsoilinareaswhereburningispracticed.21However,thesepracticesmayalsohaveundesiredconsequencesintermsofGHGemissions.Intherice-wheatcroppingsystemsofEasternIndia,forinstance,burningresidueproducesupto3tCO2elesstonsofGHGperyear,onaverage,thantheseregenerativepractices,whenimplemente