释放区域互联潜力：电网规则的技术和监管协调

Unlockingthepotentialofregionalinterconnections

Technicalandregulatory

harmonisationofgridcodes

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Unlockingthepotentialofregionalinterconnections

©IRENA2026

Unlessotherwisestated,materialinthispublicationmaybefreelyused,shared,copied,reproduced,printedand/orstored,providedthatappropriateacknowledgementisgivenofIRENAasthesourceandcopyrightholder.Materialinthispublicationthatisattributedtothirdpartiesmaybesubjecttoseparatetermsofuseandrestrictions,andappropriatepermissionsfromthesethirdpartiesmayneedtobesecuredbeforeanyuseofsuchmaterial.

ISBN:978-92-9260-701-2

Citation:IRENA(2026),Unlockingthepotentialofregionalinterconnections:Technicalandregulatoryharmonisationofgridcodes,InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency,AbuDhabi.

AboutIRENA

TheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)isanintergovernmentalorganisationthatsupportscountriesintheirtransitiontoasustainableenergyfutureandservesastheprincipalplatformforinternationalco-operation,acentreofexcellence,andarepositoryofpolicy,technology,resourceandfinancialknowledgeonrenewableenergy.IRENApromotesthewidespreadadoptionandsustainableuseofallformsofrenewableenergy,includingbioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solarandwindenergy,inthepursuitofsustainabledevelopment,energyaccess,energysecurityandlow-carboneconomicgrowthandprosperity.

Aboutthisreport

ThisdocumentwasdevelopedundertheRegulatoryEnergyTransitionAccelerator(RETA)initiative,whichaimstoenhancethecapacityofregulatorstoincreasethespeedofcleanenergytransitions.ItispartofaseriesofguidancenotespreparedbyIRENA,theIEAandtheWorldBankGroupsEnergySectorManagementAssistanceProgram(ESMAP)tohelpkeystakeholdersnavigatethechallengesassociatedwithregionalpowersysteminterconnectionsbyprovidinganalyticaloutputsandexamplesofbestpracticesforregulatoryframeworksandmechanisms.Thesenotesfocusonthesoftinfrastructureofcross-borderpowerexchange,inaccordancewiththeprioritytopicsidentifiedthroughasurveyofregulatorsinFebruary-March2023.

Acknowledgements

ThisreportwasauthoredbyGayathriNairundertheguidanceofSimonBenmarraze(IRENA).

ThereportbenefitedfromthecontributionofRebeccaBisangwa(IRENA),aswellasfromthereviewsandcommentsofexternalexperts,AndrewFlagg(Ofgem),EsraBozkirBroekman,CamillePaillardandFlorisvanDedem(IEA),RenaKuwahata(ex-IEA),NaokiFujiyamaandKabirMalik(WorldBankGroup),LucaLoSchiavo(ERRA);IRENAcolleagues,AdrianGonzalez,NorelaConstaneiscu,FranciscoGafaroandPaulKomor;andArinaAnisie(ex-IRENA).

EditingandproductionweremanagedbyFrancisFieldwiththesupportofStephanieClarke.Thereportwascopy-editedbyStevenKennedy,withgraphicdesignbyStrategicAgenda.

Disclaimer

ThisreportdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofIRENA,theIEAortheWorldBank,ortheirindividualmembersorsupporters,orofanyparticularfunderorcollaborator.Thereportdoesnotconstituteprofessionaladviceonanyspecificissueorsituation.IRENA,theIEAandtheWorldBankmakenorepresentationorwarranty,expressorimplied,inrespectofthereportscontents(includingitscompletenessoraccuracy)andshallnotberesponsibleforanyuseof,orrelianceon,thereport.

ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialhereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopiniononthepartoftheSecretariatsofIRENA,theIEAortheWorldBankconcerningandarewithoutprejudicetothelegalstatusofanyregion,country,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationoffrontiersorboundaries.ThementionofspecificcompaniesorcertainprojectsorproductsinthereportdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyIRENA,theIEAortheWorldBankinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.Mapsincludedhereinarewithoutprejudiceastothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundaries,ortothenameofanyterritory,city,orarea.

Thisreport,andthematerialherein,shallnotconstitute,orbeconstruedorconsideredtobe,alimitationuponorwaiver,eitherexpressorimplied,oftheprivilegesandimmunitiesofIRENA,theIEAortheWorldBank,allofwhicharespecificallyreserved.

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Technicalandregulatoryharmonisationofgridcodes3

Contents

Figures4

Tables4

Boxes4

Glossary5

Definitions5

Executivesummary6

1.

Introduction,purposeandscope8

2.

Understandinggridcodes:Regionalgridcodesandharmonisation10

3.

Statusofregionalinterconnectionsandgridcodes12

3.1

Europe12

3.2

NorthAmerica12

3.3

LatinAmerica12

3.4

Asia13

3.5

Africa14

4.

Levelofintegrationandcross-bordertrading15

4.1

Bilateralvs.multilateralformsofregionalgridcodeharmonisation16

4.2

Harmonisationinpractice18

4.3

Challengestoharmonisation19

5.

Keytechnicalstepsinbuildinganeffectiveregionalinterconnection20

5.1

Gridplanningandoperation20

5.2

Emergencyandrestoration23

5.3

Gridconnectionrequirementsforgenerators24

6.

Marketintegration27

6.1

Capacityallocationandcongestionmanagement28

6.2

Forwardcapacityallocation29

6.3

Energybalancing30

7.

Policyandregulatoryimplicationsofharmonisation31

7.1

Regulatoryauthority:Roles,responsibilitiesandregionalism31

7.2

Enforcingregulatoryrules32

8.

Aphasedapproachtodevelopingandimplementingaharmonisedgridcode34

9.

Emergingtrendsinregionalgridcodes37

9.1High-voltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)code

37

9.2Cybersecuritycode37

9.3Confidentialityofdataexchange38

9.4Technicalstandards38

9.5Managementofinertia39

9.6VREexpansion39

9.7Optimisationofenergystorageandotherconsumer-producer

connections40

References41

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Unlockingthepotentialofregionalinterconnections

Figures,tablesandboxes

Figures

Figure1CategoriesofgridcodesinEurope,functionalityandmainactors10

Figure2Stageofinternationalco-operationinpowersystems11

Figure3Marketintegrationlevelsdependingonregionalmarketdesign15

Figure4ThenetworkcodefamiliesofENTSO-E18

Figure5EssentialaspectsofdefenceandrestorationplansinENTSO-E24

Figure6Marketregulationdesign:InsightsfromGMS28

Figure7RegulationofforwardcapacityallocationinEurope29

Figure8ProcessforintroducinggeneralrequirementsforgeneratorsintothenationalgridsofEUcountries33

Figure9StepsindevelopingregionalgridintegrationintheSouthAsianAssociation

forRegionalCooperation35

Figure10ProcessfordevelopingnetworkcodesintheEuropeanUnion36

Figure11ProcessusedbyENTSO-Eforsubmissionofanetworkcodeproposal36

Tables

Table1HarmonisingbilateraltradebetweenIndiaandBhutan16

Table2HarmonisingmultilateraltradingintheSAPP17

Table3Regionalco-ordinationbodiesandtheirrolesinCentralAmericaandtheEuropeanUnion31

Table4IECandIEEEproductspecificationstandardsrelevanttopowersystemsandintegrationofVRE39

Boxes

Box1Harmonisingregionalplanningcodes:Tasksandtopics21

Box2Harmonisingoperatingcodes:Tasksandtopics22

Box3Harmonisingconnectioncodes:Tasksandtopics25

Box4TheWestAfricanPowerPool’sinformationandco-ordinationcentre32

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Technicalandregulatoryharmonisationofgridcodes5

Glossary

ACER

AgencyfortheCooperationofEnergyRegulators

CRIE

ComisiónRegionaldeInterconexionEléctrica

DAM

Day-aheadmarket

DSO

distributionsystemoperator

EAPP

EastAfricaPowerPool

ECOWAS

EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates

ENTSO-E

EuropeanNetworkofTransmissionSystemOperatorsforElectricity

EU

EuropeanUnion

FRT

faultride-through

GMS

GreaterMekongSubregion

HVDC

highvoltagedirectcurrent

IEEE

InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers

LFC

loadfrequencycontrol

MER

MercadoEléctricoRegional

PPA

powerpurchaseagreements

RETA

RegulatoryEnergyTransitionAccelerator

SAPP

SouthernAfricanPowerPool

SADC

SouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity

TSO

transmissionsystemoperator

VRE

variablerenewableenergy

WAPP

WestAfricanPowerPool

Definitions

•Electricityinterconnectorsarelandandunderseacables,operatingathighvoltagelevels,connectingneighbouringcountries(NationalGrid,2024).

•Gridcodesarerulesforconnectingtoandusingtheelectricitynetworkandmarket.Theserulesenablenetworkoperators,generators,suppliersandconsumerstofunctioninamannerthatsupportsthegrid(IRENA,2016)(NESO,2024).

•Regionalgridcodesjoinsetsofcountriesinregionalinterconnections.Theyprovideacommonframeworkforcross-borderenergytransfer,therebyfacilitatingenergytrading.

•Harmonisedgridcodes,thoughnotaprerequisiteforbilateraltradingofenergy,haveundergoneadjustmentsinmeasurement,methodology,procedure,andsystemspecificationtomakeparticipatingsystemsmutuallycompatible(ADB,2023).Theycreateacommonframeworkfordefinitions,parameters,dataexchange,andmaintenanceschedulestoenablesmootherinteroperabilityofparticipatingassetsandworkingarrangementsformultilateraltrading,therebydeepeningintegration.

Unlockingthepotentialofregionalinterconnections

Executivesummary

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Withdemandforelectricityandenergysecuritysurging,electricitytradingacrossbordersisboundtogrow.Interconnectionsrepresentakeyconditionforsuchgrowth.Severalgoodexamplesofintegratedregionalgridsalreadyexist.TheEuropeanUnion(EU)operatesoneofthemostcomplexinterconnectedsystems,withmorethan400interconnectorslinkingnearly600millioncitizens.TheContinentalEuropeSynchronousAreaisoneofthelargestsynchronousnetworksintheworld;withthepermanentsynchronisationofEstonia,LatviaandLithuania,itservesmorethan400millioncustomersin32countries(ENTSO-E,2025c).InNorthAmerica,37electricitytransmissioninterconnectionslinkCanadawiththeUnitedStates.Thebenefitsofsuchinterconnectionsaremultiple.Theycanensuresecureandtransparentmultilateralpowertrading.Theycanfacilitategreaterregionalenergysecurityandreliabilitythroughefficientuseofresources,likeexcessrenewableenergygeneratedacrosstheborder.Theymakeitpossibletosmoothoutthevariabilityofvariablerenewablegenerationsourcesacrossborders,allowingforoptimalutilisationofresources.

Theroleofinterconnectorsincross-borderelectricitytradingisenhancediftherulesforgridconnection,systemoperationandelectricitymarketsaretransparent.Similarly,theefficiencyofelectricitymarketsisboostedbycompliancewithregionalgridcodesandmarketguidelinesthatenhancethesecurityofthesystemandencouragethedeeperintegrationofrenewables.Theregionalgridcodegovernstheuseoftheinterconnectionandtradingofelectricityinareliableandefficientmanner(IRENA,2022).Thesearedifferentfromnationalgridcodes,which,bydefinition,reflectindividualsystemspecificities(WorldBank,2021).Itestablishescommoncodesandstandardsforoperatingthesystemsafelyandcanenablebilateralandmultilateraltransactions,encompassingaspectssuchasmarkets,gridstability,securityandtheintegrationofvariablerenewableenergy(PowerAfrica,2023).

Harmonisedgridcodes,thoughnotaprerequisiteforbilateraltradingofenergy,haveundergoneadjustmentsinmeasurement,methodology,procedure,andsystemspecificationtomakeparticipatingsystemsmutuallycompatible.

Whileregionalgridcodesareneededtoincreasetransparencyandequaltreatmentforall,theirharmonisationcanalsoensureapracticalworkingarrangement.Harmonisationreferstotheprocessofaligningandstandardisingtechnicalrulesandrequirementsthatcontrolhowpowersystemsareplannedandoperatedacrosscountries.Thisaimstoremovedifferences,ensuringthatgridscanoperatesmoothly,powercanflowefficientlyacrossborders,andmarketscanfunctionmoreeffectively.Thoughinterconnectionscanfunctionwithouttheseenhancements,asdomanyregionalinterconnectionsatthestart,harmonisationraisesthelevelofco-ordinationbetweendifferentsystemoperators.

Thepoliticalwilltoestablishandoperateinterconnectionsbetweencountriesiskey.Butdifferencesininstitutionalframeworks,institutionalcapacity,regulations,andthetechnicalstatusofexistinginfrastructureandpoliticalprioritiesstandaschallengestoharmonisedoperation.

Areviewofthevariousregionalgridcodesaroundtheworldshowsthatharmonisation,thoughnotmandatoryfortheestablishmentandoperationofregionalgrids,canadvancestandardisationofrulesfortheconnectionofrenewablegenerationsourcesandpromoteaco-ordinatedprotocolforemergencymanagementandresolutionofoutages.Currently,mostregionalgridcodesaddressmarketoperationandco-ordinationonoperationalsecurityandsystemstabilityamongtransmissionsystemoperatorswithoutfocusingontechnicalrequirements.Harmonisationalsovarieswithtradingarrangements.Forbilateraltradingarrangementsitisfoundmoreattheleveloftechnicalparametersandoperationalrequirements.Incaseofmultilateralarrangements,balancingareasandimposingstricterinterconnectionrequirementsforindependentpowerproducersarealsoconsidered.

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Technicalandregulatoryharmonisationofgridcodes7

TheEUisanexampleofawell-advancedharmonisedregionalgridcode,anexamplethatisechoedinotherregionstoonedegreeoranother.TheEUAgencyfortheCooperationofEnergyRegulators(ACER)developedaregulatoryframeworkthatwasthenadoptedbytheEuropeanNetworkofTransmissionSystemOperatorsforElectricity(ENTSO-E).IntheUnitedStates,withinterconnectionsinvolvingCanadaandsomepartsofMexico,standardsandguidelinesforco-ordinationbetweensystemoperatorsaredevelopedbytheNorthAmericanReliabilityCouncil.InLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,theregionalgridinterconnectingsixcountriesissupervisedandco-ordinatedbyCRIE(ComisiónRegionaldeInterconexionEléctrica),whichsetsminimumtechnicalrequirementsandoverseestheregionalmarket.InAsia,formulatinglegal,institutionalandpolicyframeworksremainstobedone,thoughseveralbilateralinterconnectionsexist.InAfrica,theSouthernAfricanPowerPool(SAPP),theWestAfricanPowerPool(WAPP),theEasternAfricaPowerPool(EAPP),havevaryingdegreesofharmonisation,withmorefocusonregulatorypoliciesandstandards.WAPPrecentlyconducteditsfirstfullregionalsynchronisation,unifyinggridoperationsacross15WestAfricancountriestemporarilyforfourhoursandaimingforafullpermanentsynchronisationbymid-2026.

Harmonisingregionalgridcodesischallengedbydifferentcharacteristics,designsandregulatoryparticularities.Applyingsimilarrequirementstosystemsofdifferentsizesandnon-synchronisedsystemsmaynotalwaysbefeasible.Butdeeperintegrationofpowersystemsacrossborderscanbepossiblewheregridsoperateatcompatiblefrequenciesandvoltagesandhaveareal-timeco-ordinationofpowerflows.Thiscompatibilityisenhancedwherethereisuniformityinenergypricing,whichreducesuncertaintyinlong-terminvestmentininfrastructure.Further,harmonisationofmarketrulescanallowthefreeflowofelectricitybasedonmarketsignalsandcanofferclarityoninvestment,designandco-ordinationofthecomplexoperationofthesystemacrossborders.

Forregionslookingtodevelopandharmoniseregionalgridcodes,acomparativeevaluationofexistingnationalgridcodescanexposecommonalitiesanddifferences,especiallythosethatpertaintothetransmission,distributionanddemandassetsofcross-borderimportance.Itcanalsohighlightthegapsinparticipationofrelevantstakeholders,definingtimelinesforcoderevisionsandimprovingpermittingandconnectionprocesses.Aregulatoryagencyshouldbeestablishedtoensurethattheharmonisationprocessisfairandtransparentandthatregulationsaremonitoredandrevisitedtokeepupwithchangesinthesystem.Theagencyshouldkeepinmindthecommonobjectivessetbythedifferentcountriesandmaintainabalancebetweentheinterestsofdifferentstakeholders.

InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)hasbeenworkingonthetopicofgridcodesasakeyenableroftheenergytransition,oneoftenoverlookedbypolicymakers.IRENA’s2022GridCodesforRenewablePoweredSystems(IRENA,2022)highlightedgoodpracticesongridconnectioncodesforsystemswithvariablerenewableenergy.ThatpublicationwasanupdateofScalingUpVariableRenewablePower:TheRoleofGridCodes(IRENA,2016).

Thisreport,developedbyIRENAundertheRegulatoryEnergyTransitionAccelerator(RETA)initiative,aimstoprovideregulatorsandotherpowersectorstakeholderswithinsightsfromharmonisationeffortsaroundtheworld.TheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA),IRENAandtheWorldBankarepermanentmembersoftheRETAsteeringcommittee;theinitiative’smembershipincludesregulatorsfromaroundtheworld.

ThisreportbuildsuponpreviousIRENAworkandprovidesinsightsintohowmarketandoperationalguidelinesvarybetweenthedifferentlevelsofinterconnections.Itprovidesexamplesofthekeytechnicalharmonisationconsiderationsandmarketguidelinesthathavebeenadoptedtooperateregionalelectricityinterconnections.MostofthesearedrawnfromtheEUandtheSAPP,owingtotheiradvancedoperationalregime.Thereportalsooffersinsightintotherolesandresponsibilitiesofregulatorybodies,theenforcementofharmonisedrules,keystepsindevelopingandimplementingaharmonisedgridcodeandemergingtrendsinregionalgridcodesandtheirharmonisation.

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Unlockingthepotentialofregionalinterconnections

1.Introduction,purposeandscope

Thereisanincreasinglevelofcommitmentfromcountriestoreducedependenceonfossilfuelsandrelatedcarbondioxideemissions.Expandedaccesstoelectricityandtheelectrificationofend-usesectors(mobility,spaceheatingandcooling)aredrivingtheshifttorenewables-basedelectricitygeneration.Inthiscontext,thetrilemmaofsustainability,energysecurityandaffordabilityneedsbecarefullymanaged.Thoughrenewableelectricityhasdroppedincostandspreadaroundtheworld,manycountrieswithsignificantresourcecapacityhaveyettoexploititsfullpotential.

Regionalinterconnectionstakeadvantageofthespatialdistributionofrenewablegenerationresourcesandtheircomplementarities.Goingbeyondnationalboundariesitaddsflexibilityandlowerssystemoperationcosts,benefittingcountriesthatpossessrenewableresourcesbutareconstrainedeconomicallyfromexploitingthem(IRENA,2019).Interconnectionscanreducetheriskofblackoutsandhelpmanagethevariabilityofwindandsolarphotovoltaics(PV).Theycanreducecurtailmentofrenewablesandcontributetosystemstability.

Inadditiontoaddressingsuchchallenges,cross-borderintegrationprovidesfrequencycontrolandpowerbalancingbymanagingpeakdemandthroughthesharingofexcesssupplyandreserves,reducingreserverequirements,anddiversifyingsupply.

Butasbeneficialastheyare,developinginterconnectionsfacesupfrontchallenges.Foremostamongthesearethelackofacommonvision,politicalwillandconsensus;theabsenceoftransparentandfunctionalinstitutionalframeworks;andinsufficientinstitutionalcapacitytoco-ordinate